Abstract:This study aims to develop a final design for the Northwest Slope of the Cuajone Mine (Peru) by calculating the factor of safety (FS) using finite element methods, proposing that this method enables a more accurate assessment of slope stability. The methodology included geological and geotechnical characterization of the slope through field mapping, sample analysis, and laboratory testing. A three-dimensional model was created using Phase2 software to simulate the interaction between slope geometry and operational conditions, conducting a stability analysis under different loads and disturbances. The results indicate that the finite element method detailedly evaluated the safety factor and the inter-ramp angle (IRA). In the southern zone (section A-A'), it was determined that an IRA of 43° generates an FS of 1.1. In the northern zone (section B-B'), an IRA of 38° is recommended to achieve an FS of 1.57. These findings are essential for ensuring operational safety and efficiency at the mine, as an inadequate slope design could compromise infrastructure integrity and worker safety. Advanced methods, such as finite element analysis and considering factors like IRA and disturbance factors, allow for a precise slope stability assessment and effective stabilization measures to manage risks and develop specific reinforcement solutions according to the slope's geotechnical configuration.

Resumen: El objetivo de este estudio es desarrollar un diseño final para el Talud Noroeste de la Mina Cuajone (Perú) utilizando el cálculo del factor de seguridad (FS) mediante métodos de elementos finitos, planteando que este método permite una evaluación más precisa de la estabilidad del talud. La metodología incluyo la caracterización geológica y geotécnica del talud mediante mapeo de campo, análisis de muestras y pruebas de laboratorio. Se creo un modelo tridimensional usando el software Phase2 para simular la interacción entre la geometría del talud y las condiciones operativas, realizando un análisis de estabilidad bajo diferentes cargas y perturbaciones. Los resultados indican que el método de elementos finitos proporciono una evaluación detallada del factor de seguridad y del ángulo interrampa (IRA). En la zona sur (sección A-A'), se determina que un IRA de 43° genera un FS de 1.1. En la zona norte (sección B-B'), se recomienda un IRA de 38° para lograr un FS de 1.57. Los hallazgos son fundamentales para garantizar la seguridad y eficiencia operativa en la mina, ya que un diseño de talud inadecuado podría comprometer la integridad de la infraestructura y la seguridad de los trabajadores. La aplicación de métodos avanzados como el análisis de elementos finitos y la consideración de factores como el IRA y el factor de perturbación permite una evaluación precisa de la estabilidad del talud y la implementación de medidas de estabilización efectivas para gestionar los riesgos y desarrollar soluciones de refuerzo específicas según la configuración geotécnica del talud.

ABSTRACT Open-pit mining is a highly complex and risky activity, both environmentally and operationally, requiring efficient management to maximize productivity and minimize negative impacts. This study focuses on adapting the principles of the seventh edition of the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) to this specific sector, offering a technical and detailed guide for mining project management. Given the scale of operations and the significant associated environmental impact, there is a need for a structured management framework tailored to the particularities of open-pit mining. The main objective is to adapt the PMBOK processes and practices to the needs of this type of mining, developing a technical guide that includes sector-specific tools. The study's methodology involves a comprehensive review of PMBOK and its practical application in the context of open-pit mining, using techniques such as the Critical Path Method (CPM), Gantt charts, and specialized project management software like Microsoft Project and Primavera P6. The results yield an adaptation of PMBOK for managing open-pit mining projects, aiming to improve planning, manage environmental and operational risks more effectively, and facilitate more efficient communication among stakeholders. Additionally, a reduction in downtime and improved cost control are expected outcomes. This adaptation provides a structured yet flexible approach that can adjust to changing project conditions, enhancing operational efficiency and ensuring greater sustainability in open-pit mining projects.

RESUMEN La minería de cielo abierto es una actividad de alta complejidad y riesgo, tanto en el aspecto ambiental como en el operacional, que demanda una gestión eficiente para maximizar la productividad y minimizar los impactos negativos. Este estudio se centra en la adaptación de los principios de la séptima edición del Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) a este sector específico, ofreciendo una guía técnica y detallada para la gestión de proyectos mineros. Dada la magnitud de las operaciones y el significativo impacto ambiental asociado, surge la necesidad de un marco de gestión estructurado y adaptado a las particularidades de la minería de cielo abierto. El objetivo principal es adaptar los procesos y prácticas del PMBOK a las necesidades de este tipo de minería, desarrollando una guía técnica que incluya herramientas específicas para el sector. La metodología del estudio abarca una revisión exhaustiva del PMBOK y su aplicación práctica en el contexto de la minería de cielo abierto, utilizando técnicas como la Ruta Crítica (CPM), diagramas de Gantt y software especializado en gestión de proyectos, tales como Microsoft Project y Primavera P6. Como resultados se obtiene la adaptación del PMBOK en la gestión de proyectos mineros a cielo abierto, mismo que busca mejorar la planificación, gestionar los riesgos ambientales y operacionales de manera más efectiva y facilitar una comunicación más eficiente entre los interesados. Además, se espera ver reflejada una reducción en los tiempos de inactividad y una mejora en el control de costos. Esta adaptación ofrece un enfoque estructurado y flexible que puede ajustarse a las condiciones cambiantes del proyecto, mejorando la eficiencia operativa y asegurando una mayor sostenibilidad en los proyectos de minería de cielo abierto.

One of the consequences of large-scale opencast mining for coal is the disposal of an enormous volume of overburden material that needs to be removed. With the enlargement of opencast mines and associated high stripping ratios, the volume of overburden extraction is rising. Overburden from the initial mine cut has to be necessarily dumped outside the mining area until enough void is created inside the mine for back-filling operations. The quantity of overburden placed outside the mining area normally varies from 10% to 30% of the total overburden removal. The stability of these dumps placed outside the mining area is of prime importance from the point of view of smooth operations of the mines and safety of persons in and around the dumping area. Owing to increasing pressure on land use, mine operators do not have any other option other than to place the waste dumps very near to the surface edge of the pit, which may lead to failure of the topsoil benches of the working pit. This study identified major controlling parameters that influence a stable but economic combination of height and slope angle of external dumps located close to the edge of an open coal pit.

Resumen. La expansión de la minería a cielo abierto en América Latina ha generado procesos de despoblamiento rural, evidenciados demográficamente en los censos de población y vivienda; pese a ello, existen pocas investigaciones al respecto. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar los cambios sociodemográficos en comunidades afectadas por los desplazamientos forzados derivados de dicha actividad. Se utilizaron métodos cualitativos para la recolección de información en terreno, y métodos cuantitativos para la comparación de indicadores censales entre 1990 y 2020. Asimismo, se estudió el caso de Salaverna, localidad ubicada en Zacatecas, México, que atraviesa una experiencia de desplazamiento forzado. Los resultados exponen que las empresas promueven desplazamientos de pueblos enteros con la premisa de extraer minerales con un enfoque sustentable y mejorar las condiciones de vida de la población. No obstante, tales desplazamientos suelen efectuarse de forma involuntaria para los pobladores, quienes, en contextos de poder desigual sobre sus capacidades, intereses y necesidades, cambian su modo de vida y gestan sentimientos de solastalgia derivados de la angustia provocada por la devastación socioambiental y por la destrucción paulatina de sus pueblos, que, para ellos, puede representar el centro de su mundo.

Abstract. The expansion of open pit mining in Latin America has generated processes of rural depopulation, evidenced demographically in population and housing censuses. However, there is little research on this. The objective was to analyze the socio demographic changes in communities affected by forced displacement linked to open pit mining. Qualitative methods were used to collect information in the field, and quantitative methods to compare census indicators between 1990 and 2020. Salaverna, a town located in Zacatecas, Mexico, which is going through an experience of forced displacement, is studied. The results show that companies promote the displacement of entire towns with the premise of improving the living conditions of the population to extract minerals with a sustainable approach. However, those are usually carried out involuntarily in contexts of unequal power over capacities, interests and needs of the population. The forced displacement changes the people’s way of life and generates feelings of solastalgia due to the anguish of socio-environmental devastation and the gradual destruction of towns that, for local inhabitants, can represent the center of their world.

Lightning has been observed in dust clouds following open-pit blasting. It is proposed that the occurrence of this phenomenon is related to the physical composition and characterization of the mineral fines that comprise the bulk of the dust cloud. Silicate minerals, which are susceptible to fine fracturing during blasting, generate the initial charge. This is further enhanced by collisions and friction during the turbulent upcast in the post-blast dust cloud. Varying size fractions result in different rates at which these particles drop out of suspension and create a secondary temperature gradient. This results in the creation of two charged zones and increases the potential of developing a discharge in the form of lightning. The ideal prevailing meteorological conditions need to be windless to minimize the effect of particle dissipation and have sufficient moisture to enhance the potential of generating lightning.

Abstract Since the open-pit precedence-constrained production scheduling problem is an NP-hard problem, solving it is always a challenging task, especially from a long-term perspective because a mineral deposit containing millions of blocks would require several million precedence arcs as constraints, making the solution time grow exponentially and making a direct approach unfeasible. Therefore, different strategies have been employed since the 1960s to reduce the size of this problem, such as determining the ultimate pit limit, subdividing it into phases, segmenting the production scheduling problem into long-, mid-, and short-term plans, as well as aggregating blocks into clusters, thus significantly reducing the number of precedence arcs. Different modeling and clustering strategies have already been employed in an attempt to reduce the size of the mine sequencing problem, such as layer modeling, re-blocking, bench-phase clustering, or polygon (mining cut) clustering based on a similarity function. The mining cut clustering problem has been solved lately by machine learning and heuristics techniques, and this approach can also introduce operational constraints to the mine sequencing problem, such as equipment size, minimum pit width, and preferential mining direction. In this study, we propose a mining cut clustering model based on Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP). Then we solve it by an exact approach and by Constraint Programming (CP), analyzing the strengths and weaknesses of the Constraint Optimization Problem (COP) and Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) techniques. Numerical experiments were carried out on the Bench 15 of the Newmanl dataset, demonstrating the superiority of the COP approach. openpit open precedenceconstrained constrained NPhard NP hard task longterm long term unfeasible Therefore s limit phases long, , long- mid, mid mid- shortterm short plans clusters reblocking, reblocking re blocking, blocking re-blocking benchphase bench phase function techniques width direction study MILP. MILP . (MILP) CP, CP (CP) (COP CSP (CSP 1 dataset (MILP (CP

SYNOPSIS The fracturing and movement of rock that occurs in the vicinity of a stemmed borehole charge in open pit mining operations are described by examining the effects of the emitted stress waves - shock and elastic - and the expansion of high-pressure detonation product gases. Three principal modes of momentum transfer to fractured rock are identified, all linked to gas expansion work. This work can be delivered radially (burden), axially (stemming), and in the collar zone (cratering). Flyrock is generated under unusual combinations of blast parameters and rock properties. Although infrequent and seldom predictable, the generation of flyrock can nonetheless be interpreted and modelled in terms of the principal mechanisms of rock projection described in this study. The physical processes underlying these principal mechanisms are identified and will permit the development of predictive models for flyrock velocities.

Abstract In the mining industry, where the operation of equipment consumes a large amount of energy, diesel-powered equipment is widely used because of its versatility, load capacity and adaptability to diverse terrain conditions. However, this equipment has a high diesel consumption and emits greenhouse gases, especially carbon monoxide. This paper explores the potential of hydrogen as a greener alternative to diesel engines used in mining, with the aim of reducing the environmental impact associated with petroleum-based fuels. The energy consumption of diesel trucks in mining is discussed, as well as the emissions of polluting gases. In addition, hydrogen production technologies, its advantages in controlled quantities and the challenges in production, storage and costs are addressed. Green hydrogen", produced without carbon emissions, is highlighted as a promising alternative to decarbonize mining operations, whether open pit or subway.

Resumen En la industria minera, donde la operación de equipos consume una gran cantidad de energía, se utilizan ampliamente equipos impulsados por diésel debido a su versatilidad, capacidad de carga y adaptabilidad a diversas condiciones de terreno. Sin embargo, estos equipos tienen un alto consumo de diésel y emiten gases de efecto invernadero, especialmente monóxido de carbono. Este trabajo explora el potencial del hidrógeno como una alternativa más ecológica en los motores diésel utilizados en la minería, con el objetivo de reducir el impacto ambiental asociado a los combustibles derivados del petróleo. Se discute el consumo de energía de camiones diésel en la minería, así como las emisiones de gases contaminantes. Además, se abordan las tecnologías de producción de hidrógeno, sus ventajas en cantidades controladas y los desafíos en producción, almacenamiento y costos. Se destaca el "hidrógeno verde", producido sin emisiones de carbono, como una prometedora alternativa para descarbonizar las operaciones mineras, ya sean a cielo abierto o subterráneas.

Resumen Se ofrece una valoración económica de la pérdida de servicios ecosistémicos asociada a la operación de un proyecto minero a tajo abierto en la Reserva de la Biósfera Sierra La Laguna, que dejaría un inmenso beneficio económico concentrado en pocos agentes fuera del país, a cambio de costos ambientales sustanciales en México durante varias generaciones, evidencia de que en las estimaciones de la minería es indispensable considerar los costos ambientales. La valoración de servicios ecosistémicos debe soportar la toma de decisiones, que es muy importante para instalar políticamente el debate de los pasivos ambientales que genera la actividad.

Abstract We present an economic assessment of the loss of ecosystem services associated with the operation of an open pit mining project in the “Sierra La Laguna” Biosphere Reserve. The mining project would offer immense economic benefit concentrated in a few agents outside the country, whilst generating substantial environmental costs in Mexico for several generations. This shows that in mining valuations, it is essential to consider environmental costs. The valuation of ecosystem services must support decisionmaking which is crucial to politically install the debate on the environmental liabilities generated by the activity.

Resumen: El presente artículo analiza los impactos de género del Desplazamiento Interno Forzado (DIF) ocasionados por la expansión de la mina Tayahua en Salaverna, Zacatecas. Se argumenta que los hombres experimentan el DIF principalmente a través de la pérdida de empleo, mientras que las mujeres son más afectadas por deficiencias en los servicios de agua, luz, educación y salud. Nuevo Salaverna, su nuevo lugar de residencia, se caracteriza por el desempleo, la migración de la juventud, la falta de espacio para sembrar alimentos y cuidar animales, y la fractura social. Se concluye resaltando la importancia de analizar al DIF con enfoque de género y de diseñar política pública capaz de proteger los derechos humanos de los y las desplazadas.

Abstract: This paper analyzes the gender impacts of Forced Internal Displacement (FID) caused by the expansion of the Tayahua mine in Salaverna, Zacatecas. It is argued that men experience FID mainly through employment loss while women are more affected by deficiencies in water, electricity, education, and health services. Nuevo Salaverna, their new place of residence, is characterized by unemployment, youth migration, lack of space to grow food and raise animals, and social disarray. Conclusions highlight the importance to analyze FID from a gender perspective and to design public policy aimed at protecting the human rights of the women and men being displaced.

Resumen La industria minera constituye uno de los renglones más importantes de la economía de la mayoría de los países, desarrollarla con la mayor eficiencia posible es tarea de primer orden para la ciencia, por lo que se emplean grandes esfuerzos en el estudio de las principales operacionales y de mantenimiento que la componen con el fin de optimizar recursos. El problema que fundamentó esta investigación fue la necesidad de establecer la relación entre la productividad, el mantenimiento y el reemplazo del equipamiento minero que se utiliza en la minería a cielo abierto a gran escala, partiendo del análisis de su desempeño bajo condiciones concretas de explotación. Por lo que se trazó el objetivo de implementar el indicador que mide la Efectividad Total del Equipamiento a las bandas transportadoras en una mina, a partir de la información de la producción del año 2021-2022. Del análisis se obtuvo como resultado más importante el bajo rendimiento que hace referencia al no correcto aprovechamiento de la capacidad de la máquina en el tiempo que estuvo disponible, ocasionado fundamentalmente a eliminar roturas.

Abstract The mining industry is one of the most important sectors of economy in most countries, developing it as efficiently as possible is a major task for science, due to this reason great efforts are being devoted to study the main operations that make it up in order to optimize resources. The problem that bases this investigation is the need to establish the relationship between productivity, maintenance and replacement of mining equipment that is used in large-scale in the open-pit mining, based on the analysis of their performance under specific exploitation conditions. Therefore, the objective of implementing the indicator that measures the Total Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) to the conveyor belts in a mining company was outlined, based on the production information for the year 2021-2022. From the analysis, the most important result was obtained: low performance refers to the incorrect use of the machine's capacity in the time it was available, mainly caused to eliminate breakages.

Abstract Continuous assessment of slope stability is important to the open pit design and operation. This article aims to present a tool for evaluating the stability conditions of rock slopes in mining, based on a global geotechnical database, using machine learning techniques. Different models are evaluated in this research: the general model, which uses all variables; the mathematical model, which uses only variables selected by the random forest (out-of-bag); and two expert-based models: the Q-Slope model and the Santos model. The validation of the model was done through the test sample, using partition confusion matrices aiming at reproducibility of the results. A study of the types of errors was carried out using Principal Component Analysis (PCA). The study of errors allowed the identification of samples that were inconsistent with the others. Afterwards, the models were redone and compared with the previous ones. The best performers are presented and discussed. The proposed methodology does not replace the classic analysis of slope stability. On the contrary, it contributes to engineers and geologists with a tool for monitoring the stability conditions of slopes in a mining operation. Slope stability analysis must be carried out throughout the mine's lifetime and, therefore, it is believed that the tool proposed here can optimize the selection of slopes most susceptible to instability. operation database techniques research outofbag bag (out-of-bag) expertbased expert QSlope Q sample results PCA. PCA . (PCA) others Afterwards ones discussed contrary mines mine s therefore instability (out-of-bag (PCA

The accurate estimation of peak particle velocity (PPV) is crucial during the design of bench blasting operations in open pit mines, since the vibrations caused by blasting can significantly affect the integrity of nearby buildings and other structures. Conventional models used to predict blast-induced vibrations are not capable of capturing nonlinear relationships between the different blasting-related parameters. Soft computing techniques, i.e., techniques that are founded on the principles of artificial intelligence, effectively model these complexities. In this paper, we use the random forest (RF) algorithm to develop a model to predict blast-induced ground vibrations from bench blasting using 48 data records. The model was trained and tested using WEKA data-mining software. To build this model, a feature selection process using several combinations of Attribute Evaluators and Search Methods under the WEKA Select Attributes tab was performed. The correlation coefficient of the actual data and RF model-predicted data was 0.95, and the weighted average of the relative absolute error (RAE) was 10.9%. The RF model performance was also compared to the equivalent-path-based (EPB) equation on the testing data-set, and it was seen that the RF model can effectively be used to predict PPV. The study also demonstrates that the EPB equation is a suitable empirical method for predicting PPV.

ABSTRACT Mining is an activity that causes considerable damage to ecosystems. This paper aims to argue the convenience of generalizing the implementation of rehabilitation procedures for open-pit mined areas with a socio-environmental and economic approach, which is essential to make sustainable development viable. The recommended procedure to be generalized incorporates novel elements in the social, environmental and economic dimensions whose effects transcend the rehabilitation of the affected ecosystem and generate impacts that contribute to sustainability in the broadest sense.

RESUMEN La minería es una actividad que provoca notables daños a los ecosistemas. El presente trabajo argumenta la conveniencia de generalizar la implementación de procedimientos de rehabilitación de zonas minadas a cielo abierto con un enfoque socioambiental y económico, imprescindible para viabilizar el desarrollo sostenible. El procedimiento que se recomienda generalizar incorpora elementos novedosos en las dimensiones social, ambiental y económica, cuyos efectos trascienden la rehabilitación del ecosistema afectado y genera impactos que contribuyen a la sostenibilidad en su sentido más amplio.

Geotechnical models developed during the planning stages of open pit mines are three-dimensional so as to capture the spatial variation in lithological, structural, hydrogeological, and geomechanical conditions. Geological models that describe the lithological and structural (faulting and folding) characteristics of a deposit are always 3D. Likewise, boreholes and piezometers used to develop geomechanical properties and groundwater models are drilled at spatial offsets across the deposit to understand the lateral and vertical characteristics. Yet when geotechnical analysis is completed, often the three-dimensional geological, hydrogeological, and structural models as well as geometrically complex 3D mine designs for optimizing economic mineral recovery and overburden removal are simplified to two-dimensional sections. In this paper we demonstrate that this simplification can lead to the wrong failure mechanism being identified, analysed, and/or a conservative factor of safety being calculated and hence an over-estimation of slope stability. Through case studies we show how three-dimensional analysis methods are more suited to rock slopes, particularly those with anisotropic material strength, when singularities such as geological faults are present, and nonlinear slope geometry. When the same slopes are analysed in two dimensions, the failure mechanism calculated is often fundamentally incorrect. The case studies further reveal that the factor of safety calculated in three dimensions is not always higher than the two-dimensional factor of safety.