Pakhanate-state of state waar pakhanate-tendense voorkom, is histories 'n bekende verskynsel. Klassieke voorbeelde van state waar pakhanate-tendense voorgekom het, was Rusland en Japan. Tans word talle state, waaronder Venezuela, Sirië, Montenegro en Mexiko as pakhanate geïdentifiseer, of prominente tendense word in hierdie verband daar waargeneem. Teen die agtergrond van uitgebreide endemiese korrupsie, staatskaping en gepaardgaande ondersoeke kan met reg gevra word of Suid-Afrika behoort tot die kategorie van state wat losweg as pakhanate beskryf kan word? Hierdie artikel konseptualiseer en kontekstualiseer die konsep en beoordeel die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks daarvan aan die hand van geïdentifiseerde kriteria.

Pakhanate states or states reflecting tendencies of pakhanate, are a historically well-known phenomenon. These states are also referred to as Mafia states. Classic examples of states where tendencies of pakhanate occurred, were Russia and Japan. Currently many states are identified as pakhanate states, examples of which are Venezuela, Columbia, Kosovo, Syria, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Myanmar, Transnistria and Mexico, as prominent pakhanate tendencies are being observed there. Pakhanate states (or related tendencies) can be identified because of a lack of clear differentiation between the political and criminal elite in a particular state and their related decisions. This, according to Naim (2012:1), is referred to as "a fusing of government and criminal groups" in a world that is experiencing "a revolution of crime". Pakhanate tendencies, although unique within their own context, are developing throughout the world against the backdrop of a combination offactors, including a history of crime and the existence of established criminal syndicates; states that experienced fundamental change and where low levels of political institutionalisation and power vacuums occur; existing historical trends of patrimonialism and neo-patrimonial tendencies within states; non-democratic tendencies in general, and sometimes an environment where neo-liberal values and a free trade environment provide the space for criminally orientated organisations to grow and establish their authority. Access to sophisticated technology, for example weapons, communication logistics and infrastructure, seems to be of critical importance in the development and growth of pakhanate tendencies. By making use of theoretical principles emphasising the Weberian "strong state" and "constitutional government" and related underlying principles and norms, this article critically assesses pakhanate states and related tendencies. Criteria related to the so-called Weberian strong state have been identified and qualified with normative criteria (democratic in nature), emphasising aspects such as constitutionalism, the public good, and the notion of responsible government and sound principles related to good governance. In a world that is currently experiencing fundamental change, weakening states, escalating conflicts and war, the prominence of non-state actors operating in an environment of freedom, and limited control, with access to modern and sophisticated technology, pakhanate tendencies seem to be on the increase. Against the background of extensive endemic corruption, state capture and concomitant investigations, it can be asked with good cause if South Africa belongs to this category of states. Several authors and writers such as Africa, Vegter and others have reflected on Mafia tendencies within the South African state and society. These perspectives are related to several recent works discussing endemic corruption and state capture within the South African context. This is related to the investigation of the Zondo Commission and its report linking influential politicians and the ruling ANC to endemic corruption and state capture. To support this perspective, the Global Organised Crime Index (2023) positions South Africa at number 7 within the category referred to as "mafia states". This is just below the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Nigeria. This article conceptualises and contextualises the concept pakhanate state (or related tendencies) and evaluates the South African context with reference to theoretical criteria identified in the discussion. Focus points of the article include: • characteristics and functions of the traditional nation state; • normative criteria referring to the concept of a strong and constitutional state; • a conceptualisation and operationalisation of the pakhanate phenomenon; • the identification of the pakhanate phenomenon as a worldwide tendency; • application and assessment of the application of the pakhanate phenomenon within the Sout African context; and • concluding perspectives. From a methodological perspective, this study is qualitative and deductive in nature, with an application with reference to identified case studies - particularly South African. An assessment of the South African context will be made by using the criteria associated with pakhanate states and the related phenomena.

Science investments should benefit everyone; however, research still predominantly lacks gender integration, resulting in incomplete findings and inequitable outcomes. Moreover, despite some progress, gender disparities persist in the research workforce. Research funders, including science granting councils, are pivotal in driving gender transformation through shaping knowledge production and research infrastructure. We report on key findings from the Science Granting Councils Initiative (SGCI) in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) Gender Equality and Inclusivity (GEI) Project - a multi-year participatory intervention aimed at strengthening the capacities of councils to integrate GEI across their functions. Participating councils were located in 13 African countries, and their actions spanned four domains: building organisational GEI infrastructure; reshaping norms, practices, and power relations that perpetuate gender inequality; implementing targeted measures to address women's unequal access to resources and research opportunities; and promoting collective ownership of efforts to advance GEI in the research and innovation ecosystem. SIGNIFICANCE: • Achieving gender transformation in research and innovation hinges on addressing two intertwined challenges: structural gender inequality in higher education and research institutions, and a lack of gender integration in research content and design. • Grant-makers influence decisions about who conducts and participates in research, the types of research approaches and topics prioritised, and the populations that benefit from research findings. Adopting a GEI lens in these decisions enhances research quality and promotes equity. • Our findings pinpoint entry points for leveraging grant-making practices to advance gender transformation and underscore the importance of rooting such interventions in context.

Resumen El artículo aborda la relación sino-latinoamericana desde la perspectiva del constructivismo, desafiando los enfoques materialistas que han predominado en los estudios sobre este tema. El constructivismo busca explorar aspectos que han sido subestimados por los discursos materialistas y abrir nuevas dimensiones de análisis en las relaciones internacionales entre China y América Latina. Tradicionalmente, la visión de las relaciones exteriores se ha centrado en categorías históricas y teorías como el liberalismo neoliberalismo y la teoría de la dependencia. Sin embargo, el constructivismo busca comprender una nueva cultura internacional que trascienda lo material, incorporando aspectos culturales e ideacionales. En este contexto, se analizan las identidades estatales de China y los países latinoamericanos como punto de partida para estudiar sus relaciones internacionales. Se reconoce que las percepciones compartidas, las normas y las narrativas culturales son fundamentales en la construcción de la identidad de los estados y en la formulación de sus políticas exteriores. Se explora la correspondencia cultural entre el Estado chino y América Latina mediante el análisis de las “estructuras culturales” propuestas por Wendt en el sistema internacional: las culturas hobbesiana, lockeana y kantiana. Esta exploración permite comprender las lógicas culturales actuales entre los actores en el sistema internacional. Es crucial destacar la influencia de los Estados Unidos en el sistema internacional y en su relación con China y los países de América Latina. Este enfoque resalta las complejidades y contrastes en las relaciones sino-estadounidenses y latino-estadounidenses, enmarcándolas dentro de la dinámica de la lógica lockeana que caracteriza la estructura global del sistema internacional. La comprensión de las dimensiones culturales e ideacionales en estas interacciones internacionales ofrece una visión más completa de las relaciones y contribuye a una mayor comprensión de cómo estas dinámicas culturales moldean la identidad de los Estados y sus decisiones en el sistema internacional. El constructivismo emerge como un marco teórico valioso para enriquecer el análisis de las relaciones internacionales y abrir nuevas perspectivas en el estudio de las interacciones entre China y América Latina.

Abstract In this critical analysis, the Sino-Latin American relationship is approached from the constructivist perspective, challenging the materialistic approaches that have predominated in studies on this topic. Constructivism seeks to explore aspects underestimated by materialistic discourses and open new dimensions of analysis in the international relations between China and Latin America. Traditionally, the focus of foreign relations has been on historical categories and theories such as neoliberalism and dependency theory. However, constructivism aims to understand a new international culture that transcends the material, incorporating cultural and ideational aspects. In this context, the article centers on the state identities of China and Latin American countries as a starting point for analyzing their international relations. It acknowledges that shared perceptions, norms, and cultural narratives are crucial in shaping states’ identities and formulating their foreign policies. The cultural correspondence between the Chinese state and Latin America is explored through the analysis of Wendt’s “cultural structures” in the international system: the Hobbesian, Lockean, and Kantian cultures. This exploration allows an understanding of the current cultural logic among actors in the international system. It is crucial to highlight the United States’ influence in the international system and its relationship with China and Latin American countries. This approach emphasizes the complexities and contrasts in Sino-American and Latin American United States relations, framing them within the dynamics of the Lockean logic that characterizes the global structure of the international system. Understanding the cultural and ideational dimensions of these international interactions provides a more comprehensive view of relationships and contributes to a deeper understanding of how these cultural dynamics shape states’ identities and decisions in the international system. Constructivism emerges as a valuable theoretical framework to enrich the analysis of international relations and open new perspectives in the study of interactions between China and Latin America.

Resumen Este artículo explora las tensiones sistémicas en los sectores agrícola y pesquero, derivadas de decisiones históricas e influidas por diversos agentes. Los análisis revelan limitaciones que están cambiando las finalidades del trabajo, llevando a quienes trabajan en la tierra y en el mara diversificar sus actividades para mantener la rentabilidad a expensas de su salud. En un contexto de transición ecológica, los trabajadores tienen que adaptarse a diversas exigencias sin el apoyo adecuado. Las tensiones entre la producción artesanal y la industrial ilustran los retos a los que se enfrentan, con normativas que a veces se perciben como injustas. Las actividades agrícolas y pesqueras están dominadas por presiones normativas, tecnológicas, comunitarias y sociales, que exigen una revaluación del equilibrio de poderes. Un análisis de la actividad, centrado en el análisis de los sistemas de actividad y las contradicciones sistémicas, puede ayudar a poner en perspectiva las preocupaciones de las personas y grupos implicados y apoyar el diseño de contextos laborales, normas e instrumentos de trabajo que sean sostenibles y de desarrollo.

Résumé Cet article explore les tensions systémiques dans les secteurs agricole et halieutique, issues de décisions historiques et influencées par divers acteurs. Les analyses révèlent des contraintes qui modifient les finalités du travail, amenant les exploitants de la terre et de la mer à diversifier leurs activités pour maintenir la rentabilité au détriment de leur santé. Dans un contexte de transition écologique, les exploitants doivent s'adapter à des injonctions diverses sans un soutien adéquat. Les tensions entre production artisanale et industrielle illustrent les défis rencontrés, avec des réglementations parfois perçues comme injustes. Les activités agricoles et halieutiques sont dominées par des pressions réglementaires, technologiques, communautaires et sociétales, nécessitant une réévaluation des rapports de force. Une analyse de l’activité, centrée sur l’analyse des systèmes d’activité et des contradictions systémiques, peut venir soutenir la mise en perspective des préoccupations des personnes et des collectifs en activité et accompagner la conception de situations de travail, de règles et d’instruments, développementales et durables.

Resumo Este artigo explora as tensões sistémicas nos sectores agrícola e pesqueiro, derivadas de decisões históricas e influenciadas por diversos agentes. As análises revelam constrangimentos que estão a alterar as finalidades do trabalho, levando a quem trabalha na terra e no mar a diversificarem as suas atividades para manterem a rentabilidade em detrimento da sua saúde. Num contexto de transição ecológica, os trabalhadores têm de se adaptar a diversas exigências sem apoio adequado. As tensões entre a produção artesanal e industrial ilustram os desafios que enfrentam, com regulamentações que por vezes são consideradas injustas. As atividades agrícolas e pesqueiras são dominadas por pressões regulamentares, tecnológicas, comunitárias e sociais, que exigem uma reavaliação do equilíbrio de poder. Uma análise da atividade, centrada na análise dos sistemas de atividade e das contradições sistémicas, pode ajudar a colocar em perspetiva as preocupações das pessoas e grupos envolvidos e apoiar a conceção de contextos, normas e instrumentos de trabalho que sejam sustentáveis e de desenvolvimento.

Abstract This article explores systemic tensions in the agricultural and fishing sectors, derived from historical decisions and influenced by various agents. The analyzes reveal limitations that are changing the purposes of work, leading exploiters of the land and sea to diversify their activities to maintain profitability at the expense of their health. In the context of ecological transition, exploiters must adapt to various demands without adequate support. The tensions between artisanal and industrial production illustrate the challenges they face, with regulations that are sometimes perceived as unfair. Agricultural and fishing activities are dominated by regulatory, technological, community and social pressures which require a re-evaluation of the balance of power. An activity analysis, focused on activity systems and systemic contradictions, can help put into perspective the individual and collective worries of those involved, and support the design of work environments, norms and instruments that are sustainable and developmental.

Resumo O presente artigo é resultado de uma análise comparada entre as diversas espécies de sistemas eleitorais, com o fim de estabelecer as bases para uma justiça eleitoral. São estudadas as principais características de sistemas eleitorais, no que diz respeito às suas funções normativas, executivas e jurisdicionais, bem como a independência e autonomia entre elas; à sua alocação em uma das três esferas de poder estatal; ao recrutamento, à carreira e às prerrogativas dos membros que a integram; e aos princípios fundamentais e diretrizes que orientam suas decisões. O objeto da pesquisa contempla direitos nacionais representativos de sistemas jurídicos de influência do common law e do civil law e, com lastro em normas internacionais, a justiça eleitoral é situada como uma instituição indispensável para a salvaguarda de direitos fundamentais, sob a ótica dos direitos humanos. De modo qualitativo, com suporte legislativo e doutrinário, enseja-se uma exposição e a reflexão sobre as conformações da justiça eleitoral, seus estândares mínimos e o papel que ela desempenha na manutenção de uma democracia. eleitorais normativas jurisdicionais elas estatal recrutamento integram decisões internacionais humanos qualitativo doutrinário ensejase enseja se democracia

Abstract This article is the result of a comparative analysis of the various types of electoral systems, with the aim of establishing the foundations of electoral justice. The main characteristics of electoral systems are studied in terms of their normative, executive and adjudicative functions, as well the independence and autonomy among them; the allocation of such functions to one of the three spheres of state power; the recruitment, career and prerogatives of their members; and the main principles and guidelines orienting their decisions. The research is focused on national rights representative of legal systems influenced by common law and civil law. Based on international norms, electoral justice is contextualized as an indispensable mechanism of safeguarding fundamental rights from a human rights perspective. With a qualitative approach, supported by legislation and legal doctrine, the paper presents and reflects on the forms of electoral justice, its minimum standards, and the role played by such justice in the maintenance of a democracy. The research is focused on the subject of national rights representative of legal systems influenced by common law and civil law; with support from international norms, electoral justice is contextualized as an indispensable institution to safeguard fundamental rights from the perspective of human rights. In a qualitative approach, with support from legislative and doctrinal texts, the article provides an exposition and reflection on the forms of electoral justice, the minimum standards and the role played by such justice in maintaining a democracy. normative them power recruitment members decisions norms approach doctrine democracy texts

Eisenhower, Dulles, Eden and Macmillan played crucial roles in the Suez crisis, which had significant repercussions for the Middle East and the global balance of power. However, none of them entirely escaped the crisis unscathed. Eisenhower viewed containment of communism as his primary objective. He believed that it was untenable for the USA to identify with Britain's colonial past. Dulles rarely lost sight of the colonial dimension during the crisis. Ultimately, the crisis had a significant impact on Britain's international standing, confirming its status as a second-rate nation and revealing its waning status as a global power. As the international aspect of decolonisation was crucial for Macmillan to address, he pursued withdrawal from Africa as a vital objective to maintain and expand Britain's status as a powerful nation. He was unable to eradicate the stigma associated with the fact that Britain was a colonial power. His efforts to strengthen the status of Britain as a significant power through the Commonwealth were similarly ineffectual. The importance of British colonialism had attained its pinnacle. In some quarters, it was believed that Macmillan had always played a dubious role targeting Eden's removal as prime minister. Reasons for these apparent misrepresentations remain a matter of conjecture. The most favourable interpretation was that he attempted to use his association with Eisenhower from World War II to bolster Eden's domestic position against cabinet opponents. Alternately, he may have led Eden intentionally into a political catastrophe from which he expected to profit. He was the ultimate beneficiary of Suez. Macmillan was involved in all of the crucial decisions during the crisis and may have had greater intent than Eden to bring down Nasser. Added to the suspicions about Macmillan's behaviour was his reluctance, if not outright refusal, to formally evaluate Suez that prompted him to collaborate closely with the Cabinet Office in order to authorise ministerial memoirs and official publications that were required to be submitted to him prior to publication. As it involved extremely delicate concerns of foreign and domestic politics, he ruled that nothing could be published regarding Suez without his permission. In his ruthless and violent pursuit of vindication, it was common knowledge that Eden disregarded the norms of confidentiality. His conservative administration was fatally undermined by internal discord. Suez ruined him politically, materially and emotionally. Eden made the final decision to invade Egypt without extensive consultation with his cabinet, without playing open cards with the United States, and while keeping members of the Commonwealth in the dark. Suez remained a highly visible and fiercely contested issue in British academic, media and political circles, and a parliamentary campaign continued as new publications, radio and television programmes addressed new aspects of the issue. The crisis resulted in moral defeat and diplomatic catastrophe for the two former colonial powers. Their authority and prestige among Arab powers were irreparably harmed. They were now dependent on Israel, the youngest and most rapidly expanding military power in the Middle East. The crisis had an enduring effect on the international relations of France. Mollet, the French premier, disapproved of Nasser's support for Algerian insurgents who presented France with substantial challenges and even posed a threat to its political stability. Following the collapse of the Fourth Republic, General Charles de Gaulle was elected president of France. He held his own opinion about France's indispensable role in international affairs. Nasser was at ease within the Soviet sphere of influence due to hostility and vilification from the West. The Soviet Union and its allies took advantage of the concurrent Hungarian insurrection to condemn Western imperialism, thereby diverting global attention away from their own brutality in Hungary. Nasser emerged from the crisis with distinction owing to his Pan-Arab nationalism and neutrality. It allowed him to strengthen his position as an advocate for the Arab cause and decolonisation. The new realities, which the West encountered in the Middle East, turned out to be the decline of colonialism and the rise of nationalism.

Eisenhower, Dulles, Eden en Macmillan was instrumenteel tydens die Suezkrisis wat beduidende implikasies vir die Midde-Ooste en die globale magsbalans meegebring het, maar nie een van hulle het heeltemal ongeskonde uit die krisis gekom nie. Eisenhower het die inperking van kommunisme as sy hoogste prioriteit geag en het Brittanje se koloniale erfenis as onhoudbaar beskou, en Dulles het die koloniale dimensie dikwels opgehaal. Brittanje se dalende status as 'n wêreldmoondheid is blootgelê en as 'n tweederangse moondheid bevestig. Die feit dat Brittanje 'n koloniale mag was, het 'n stigma gelaat waaraan Eden en Macmillan weinig kon doen. Dit was alombekend dat Eden die reëls van geheimhouding verontagsaam het in sy meedoënlose en bloedige strewe na regverdiging. Wat Eden se konserwatiewe regering noodlottig ondermyn het, was die onenigheid in sy eie geledere. Hyself was polities, fisies en emosioneel deur Suez verpletter. Macmillan het uit die wrak van Suez getree om 'n gedemoraliseerde Konserwatiewe Party te lei en 'n land wat nog in die dieptes van vertwyfeling verkeer het. Frankryk was diep gegrief oor Nasser se steun aan rebelle in Algerië. Die nagevolge van die krisis het die agteruitgang van Europese kolonialisme beklemtoon en 'n blywende impak op Frankryk se internasionale verhoudings gehad. Algerië het ontsaglike probleme vir Frankryk veroorsaak en selfs sy politieke stabiliteit bedreig.

Abstract The article analyzes the values argument use in the Mexican case law as an argumentative resource in the decisions. Through an interpretive study, a conceptual reconstruction is proposed that allows identifying the presence of two main perspectives in the judicial criteria. According to the first, values are an extraordinary argumentative resource of exceptional use in decisions. For the second, values are an ordinary argumentative resource that must be taken into account in most decisions. From this reconstruction, clarifying the use of values in case law is proposed based on the thesis that there are no values within the law. There are solely norms that order the construction or preservation in social life of a certain good or object, which is appreciated as valuable in a deliberation.

Resumen El artículo analiza el empleo del alegato de valores en la jurisprudencia mexicana como un recurso argumentativo en las decisiones. Por medio de un estudio interpretativo, se propone una reconstrucción conceptual que permite identificar la presencia de dos perspectivas principales en los criterios judiciales. Según la primera, los valores son un recurso argumentativo extraordinario de uso excepcional en las decisiones. Para la segunda, los valores son un recurso argumentativo ordinario que debe tenerse en cuenta en la mayoría de las decisiones. A partir de esta reconstrucción se propone esclarecer el empleo de los valores en la jurisprudencia, con base en la tesis de que no hay valores dentro del derecho, sino únicamente normas que ordenan la construcción o preservación en la vida social de un determinado bien u objeto apreciado como valioso en una deliberación.

Abstract With a synthesis analysis methodology, the purpose of this article is to offer a theoretical foundation on the legitimacy of moral acts and decisions. Consequently, the following question will be resolved: what is the ethical function of law, within the framework of the exercise of a conscience and conscience constructed by moral agents? It is concluded that legitimate coercion must be based on the universal protection of every person and on the submission to objections by citizens, with the purpose of reviewing the legitimacy and legality of legal norms.

Resumen Con una metodología analítico-sintética, el propósito del presente artículo es ofrecer un fundamento teórico sobre la legitimidad de los actos y las decisiones morales. Por consiguiente, se resolverá la siguiente cuestión: ¿cuál es la función ética del derecho, en el marco del ejercicio de una conciencia y consciencia construidas por agentes morales? Se concluye que la coacción legítima debe fundarse en la protección universal de toda persona y en el sometimiento a objeciones por parte de los ciudadanos, con el propósito de revisar la legitimidad y legalidad de las normas jurídicas.

Abstract: This paper explores the relevance and intricate nature of the legal harmonization process in regional integrations, providing a perspective within the framework of the internormative system, with a focus on the case of the European Union. We underscore the role of national court judges in this legal harmonization process, especially in applying harmonized norms, through interjurisdictional dialogue facilitated by preliminary rulings.

Résumé: Cet article explore la pertinence et la nature complexe du processus d'harmonisation juridique dans les intégrations régionales, en offrant une perspective dans le cadre du système internormatif, en mettant l'accent sur le cas de l'Union européenne. Nous soulignons le rôle des juges des tribunaux nationaux dans ce processus d'harmonisation juridique, notamment dans l'application des normes harmonisées, à travers un dialogue interjuridictionnel facilité par des décisions préliminaires.

Resumo: Este artigo explora a relevância e a intricada natureza do processo de harmonização jurídica em integrações regionais, oferecendo uma perspectiva à luz do sistema internormativo, com ênfase no exemplo da União Europeia. Destacamos o papel dos juízes dos tribunais nacionais nesse processo de harmonização jurídica, particularmente na aplicação das normas harmonizadas, por meio do diálogo interjurisdicional facilitado pelo reenvio prejudicial.

Resumen: Este artículo explora la relevancia y la intrincada naturaleza del proceso de armonización jurídica en integraciones regionales, ofreciendo una perspectiva a la luz del sistema internormativo, con énfasis en el ejemplo de la Unión Europea. Destacamos el papel de los jueces de los tribunales nacionales en este proceso de armonización jurídica, especialmente en la aplicación de las normas armonizadas, a través del diálogo interjurisdiccional facilitado por la remisión prejudicial.

Resúmen La investigación cualitativa es una actividad profunda y compleja porque el investigador es un sujeto inserto en el objeto de estudio; al realizar la investigación simultáneamente sufre de su influencia; enfrentándose así a cuestiones éticas. Hay una influencia del contexto, que muchas veces se requiere la adopción de reglas y normas éticas por parte del investigador a la situación que se vive produciendo un dilema. La integridad ética de la investigación no sólo se limita en respetar las normas o las directivas de los comités de ética sino como parte de la responsabilidad del investigador que es indisociable de su calidad científica. El objetivo del presente trabajo es reflexionar sobre los diferentes dilemas éticos asociados al proceso de investigación dentro de los Estudios Organizacionales para lo que se eligieron tres tesis doctorales del Posgrado en Estudios Organizacionales de la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa que usaron estudios de caso múltiple en microempresas en México. Se realizó una revisión documental por parte de los investigadores y se discutieron las implicaciones éticas de la investigación. Las principales conclusiones fueron que la actividad investigativa del área de estudio reflexione sobre la importancia de la ética en la aplicación de la metodología cualitativa y sus implicaciones en el proceso de investigación. La gestión de la investigación debe ser cuidadosa, amplia y abiertamente informada para las partes involucradas; desde el inicio de la investigación hasta la publicación de los resultados. Los desafíos éticos que se presentan en el ingreso a la organización deben establecer un consentimiento informado explícito y los participantes deben tener la seguridad y claridad de tomar decisiones informadas con respecto a la información que se otorgará además de su uso y difusión.

Abstract Qualitative research is a deep and complex activity because the researcher is a subject inserted in the object of study; When carrying out the research he simultaneously suffers from its influence; thus, facing ethical issues. There is an influence of the context, which often requires the adoption of ethical rules and norms by the researcher to the situation that is experienced, producing a dilemma. The ethical integrity of research is not only limited to respecting the standards or directives of ethics committees but also as part of the responsibility of the researcher, which is inseparable from their scientific quality. The objective of this work is to reflect on the different ethical dilemmas associated with the research process within Organizational Studies, for which three doctoral theses were chosen from the Postgraduate in Organizational Studies of the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa that used multiple case studies in microenterprises. in Mexico. A documentary review was carried out by the researchers and the ethical implications of the research were discussed. The main conclusions were that the research activity of the study area reflects on the importance of ethics in the application of qualitative methodology and its implications in the research process. The management of the investigation must be careful, comprehensive and openly informed to the parties involved, from the beginning of the research to the publication of the results. The ethical challenges that arise when entering the organization must establish explicit informed consent and participants must have the security and clarity of making informed decisions regarding the information that will be provided in addition to its use and dissemination.

Abstract: In family justice, one of the biggest challenges is to effectively guarantee the right of children to participate. Though participation implies multiple benefits for the child, such as increased self-esteem, psychological wellbeing and preventing violations of rights, it is possible to detect many obstacles for it to effectively occur in court. Among these, prioritizing adults’ interests, conditioning participation of the child to their age and lack of formal regulations was noted. The present study consists of a thematic analysis of interviews with Chilean family judges about child participation. Findings point to a consideration of the infrastructure and the institutional legal organization as not being able to guarantee and facilitate child participation in the judicial system. Lack of standardization in norms and practices inside the courts encourages judges to base their decisions on their own personal abilities and criteria, frequently influenced by prejudice about revictimization and the capacity of children to exercise a meaningful participation related to their psychological development. In addition, considerations about how laws and family courts should promote child participation in family justice are discussed.

Resumen: En la justicia de familia, uno de los mayores desafíos es hacer efectivo el derecho de los niños a la participación. Aunque la participación infantil entraña múltiples beneficios, como mayor autoestima, bienestar psicológico y prevención de posibles vulneraciones de derechos en los niños, se observan varias dificultades para que esta se haga efectiva en el contexto del tribunal. Estas incluyen priorizar los intereses del adulto, condicionar la participación del niño a su edad, y la falta de capacitación y regulación. El presente estudio realizó un análisis temático en base a entrevistas con jueces de familia chilenos sobre la participación infantil. Los hallazgos apuntan a una visión acerca de la infraestructura y de la organización institucional judicial que no garantiza ni facilita la participación infantil. La falta de estandarización y capacitación favorece que cada juez haga uso de habilidades y criterios personales para aplicarla o no, donde se observa que frecuentemente influyen ideas preconcebidas sobre la victimización secundaria y la capacidad de ejercer una participación significativa en relación con el nivel de desarrollo de los niños. Asimismo, se discuten las consideraciones que la ley y la institución legal deben tener en orden de garantizar la participación de niños, niñas y adolescentes en causas judiciales de familia.

Abstract Applied to the theme of repetitive demands, when dealing with efficiency and maximization of wealth, the Economic Analysis of Law indicates the probable existence of an imbalance, which always occurs in a relationship when the benefits obtained at the end of the process are greater than the marginal costs of opting for non-judicialization. Using the Economic Analysis of Law, as theory and method, this article asks: Do facilitated access to justice, low litigation costs and the amount of compensation arbitrated in lawsuits influence consumer behavior in the context of repetitive litigation under the approach of the Economic Analysis of Law? The hypothesis is that facilitated access to justice, low costs of litigation and arbitrated damages in lawsuits influence consumer behavior in the context of repetitive litigation in the airline industry. The study analyzed the conceptual and methodological aspects of the theory of Economic Analysis of Law in the context of the increasing judicialization of the air sector from the air blackout occurred in October 2006. The research was bibliographic, based on secondary data, obtained in books, scientific articles, theses and dissertations, electronic networks, through which were explored the possible correlation between norms and judicial decisions and the phenomenon of increasing litigation in the Brazilian air sector under the theoretical approach of the Economic Analysis of Law. The result of the survey indicates the need to change the existing incentives that contribute to the increasing volume of repetitive demands in the air sector.

Resumo Aplicada ao tema das demandas repetitivas, ao tratar da eficiência e maximização da riqueza, a Análise Econômica do Direito indica a provável existência de um desequilíbrio, que sempre ocorre em uma relação quando os benefícios obtidos ao final do processo são maiores do que os custos marginais de se optar pela não-judicialização. Utilizando a Análise Econômica do Direito, como teoria e método, este artigo questiona: O acesso facilitado à justiça, os baixos custos processuais e o valor da indenização arbitrada nas ações judiciais influenciam o comportamento do consumidor no contexto de litígios repetitivos sob o enfoque da Análise Econômica do Direito Lei? A hipótese é que o acesso facilitado à justiça, baixos custos de litígio e danos arbitrados em ações judiciais influenciam o comportamento do consumidor no contexto de litígios repetitivos no setor aéreo. O estudo analisou os aspectos conceituais e metodológicos da teoria da Análise Econômica do Direito no contexto da crescente judicialização do setor aéreo a partir do apagão aéreo ocorrido em outubro de 2006. A pesquisa foi bibliográfica, pautada em dados secundários, obtidos em livros, artigos científicos, teses e dissertações, redes eletrônicas, por meio das quais foram exploradas as possíveis correlação entre as normas e as decisões judiciais e o fenômeno da crescente litigiosidade no setor aéreo brasileiro sob a abordagem teórica da Análise Econômica do Direito. O resultado da pesquisa indica a necessidade de alteração dos incentivos existentes que contribuem para o volume crescente de demandas repetitivas no setor aéreo.

Resumen En este trabajo se explora el rol que la verdad de los enunciados fácticos juega en la aplicación de normas jurídicas y en la justificación de las decisiones judiciales. Se sostiene que la verdad es irrelevante respecto de la aplicación de normas jurídicas, entendida esta última en términos «inferenciales», y que lo es también respecto de la justificación interna de las decisiones que aplican esas normas. Se argumenta luego que la verdad de la premisa fáctica tampoco es condición necesaria de la justificación externa, en diferentes sentidos. Se sostiene, en definitiva, que la verdad de la premisa fáctica no es condición necesaria de la justificación de la decisión judicial en ningún sentido plausible en que dicha justificación pueda ser evaluada. Esto no significa, sin embargo, que la verdad de dicha premisa sea irrelevante.

Abstract This paper explores the role that the truth of factual statements plays in applying legal norms and in the justification of judicial decisions. It is argued that the truth of the factual premise is irrelevant regarding an «inferentialist» interpretation of the concept of application of legal norms and that it is also unrelated to the internal justification of judicial decisions. Then it is also argued that the truth of the factual premise is neither a necessary condition for different dimensions of external justification. In short: the truth of the factual premise is not a necessary condition for the justification of the judicial decision in any plausible sense in which such a justification can be evaluated. This does not mean, however, that the truth of that premise is irrelevant tout court.

Resumen Este artículo evalúa si las decisiones de los consejeros de administración/consultivos son influenciadas por factores externos e internos a sus empresas. El artículo explora si la tendencia de los consejeros a tomar decisiones, medida por sus valores, se ve influida por otros factores, concretamente su experiencia profesional, las reglas de gobernanza a las que están sometidos y deben seguir, y el tamaño de las empresas en las que operan. Se realizó un estudio cuantitativo, aplicado, descriptivo y correlacional. El instrumento de recogida de datos fue un cuestionario, basado en el inventario de valores de Schwartz – IVS (1992), aplicado a una muestra de 121 consejeros en el país. Sus decisiones están significativamente influenciadas por los diferentes niveles de exigencias externas, especialmente en el conservadurismo más elevado, que representa una restricción de las acciones e impulsos que pueden violar las normas sociales, así como la aceptación de las normas y tradiciones sociales. El artículo es original al utilizar los valores individuales como instrumento para mensurar, a través de una metodología cuantitativa que incluye un inventario de valores, las tendencias decisorias de los consejeros, principalmente al incluir la dimensión individual en el proceso decisorio, huyendo del “mainstream” académico sobre los resultados del trabajo de grupos. La importancia de los valores de los consejeros no debe subestimarse en lo que respecta a la responsabilidad social de las empresas y los principios ASG. Con el estudio de los valores humanos y su influencia en la toma de decisiones en los consejos de administración es posible minimizar los conflictos, facilitar el intercambio de ideas y la toma de decisiones, y promover la sostenibilidad y la generación de valor organizacional, mitigando directa e indirectamente los riesgos empresariales y sus impactos sociales. administraciónconsultivos consultivos profesional seguir operan cuantitativo correlacional cuestionario 1992, 1992 , (1992) 12 país externas elevado sociales mensurar decisorio mainstream “mainstream grupos ASG conflictos organizacional 199 (1992 1 19 (199 (19 (1 (

Abstract This article is assess whether directors’ decisions are influenced by external and internal factors to the company. The article explores whether directors’ decision-making tendency, measured through their values, is influenced by other factors, specifically their professional experience, the governance rules to which they are subject and must follow, and the size of the companies. A quantitative, applied, descriptive and correlational study was carried out. Data collection instrument was a questionnaire, based on the Schwartz Value Inventory – IVS (1992), applied to a sample of 121 counselors in Brazil. Decisions are significantly influenced by different levels of external constraints, especially in higher conservatism, which represents a restriction of actions and impulses that may violate social norms, as well as acceptance of society’s norms and traditions. The article is original in using individual values as an instrument to measure, through a quantitative methodology that encompasses an inventory of values, the decision-making tendencies of directors, mainly because it includes the individual dimension in the decision-making process, escaping from the academic “mainstream” on the results of group work. The importance of directors’ personal values cannot be underestimated when it comes to corporate social responsibility and ESG principles. With the study of human values and their influence on decision-making in boards of directors, it is possible to minimize conflicts, facilitate the exchange of ideas and decision- making, and promote sustainability and the generation of organizational value, directly and indirectly mitigating business risks and their social impacts. directors company decisionmaking decision making tendency experience follow companies out questionnaire 1992, 1992 , (1992) 12 Brazil constraints conservatism societys society s traditions measure process mainstream “mainstream work principles conflicts value impacts 199 (1992 1 19 (199 (19 (1 (

Resumo Este artigo avalia se as decisões de conselheiros de administração/consultivos são influenciadas por fatores externos e internos a suas empresas. O artigo explora se a tendência decisória dos conselheiros, medida por meio de seus valores, é influenciada por outros fatores, especificamente sua experiência profissional, as regras de governança a que estão submetidos e devem seguir e o porte das empresas em que atuam. Foi realizado um estudo quantitativo, aplicado, descritivo e correlacional. O instrumento de coleta de dados foi um questionário, baseado no inventário de valores de Schwartz – IVS (1992), aplicado a uma amostra de 121 conselheiros no país. Suas decisões são significativamente influenciadas pelos diferentes níveis de exigência externa, especialmente no conservadorismo superior, o que representa uma restrição de ações e impulsos que possam violar normas sociais bem como a aceitação das normas e tradições da sociedade. O artigo é original ao utilizar valores individuais como instrumento para mensurar, por meio de uma metodologia quantitativa que engloba um inventário de valores, as tendências decisórias dos conselheiros, principalmente por incluir a dimensão individual no processo decisório fugindo do “mainstream” acadêmico sobre resultados do trabalho de grupos. A importância dos valores pessoais dos conselheiros não pode ser subestimada no que se refere à responsabilidade social corporativa e aos princípios ASG. Com o estudo dos valores humanos e sua influência nas tomadas de decisão em conselhos de administração é possível minimizar conflitos, facilitar a troca de ideias e a tomada de decisões e promover a sustentabilidade e a geração de valor organizacional, mitigando direta e indiretamente os riscos do negócio e seus impactos sociais. administraçãoconsultivos consultivos profissional atuam quantitativo correlacional questionário 1992, 1992 , (1992) 12 país externa superior sociedade mensurar mainstream “mainstream grupos ASG conflitos organizacional 199 (1992 1 19 (199 (19 (1 (

Resumen Este trabajo analiza la operación de construcción jurídica denominada especificación y desarrolla la noción de concepto jurídico indeterminado desde la perspectiva de la teoría del derecho realista. A partir de estas nociones profundiza y aplica un modelo de especificación descriptivo de las operaciones que realizan los jueces en diferentes sectores normativos. Así, se defiende la tesis que afirma que más allá de las categorías dogmáticas, el método de especificación desarrollado es útil en varios sectores normativos diversos dentro del derecho público. Con el fin de mostrar la utilidad del análisis, se incluye una revisión de tres sentencias judiciales donde se muestra cómo el tribunal construye derecho dotando de contenido a conceptos jurídicos indeterminados en juego.

Abstract This paper analyzes the operation of legal construction called specification, and develops the notion of indeterminate legal concept from the perspective of the theory of realist law. Based on these notions, it deepens and applies a descriptive model of the operations carried out by judges in different normative sectors. Thus, the thesis that beyond the dogmatic categories, the specification method is useful in several different normative sectors within public law is defended. In order to show the usefulness of the analysis, a review of three judicial decisions is included, revealing how the court constructs law by giving content to indeterminate legal concepts at stake.