ABSTRACT This article discusses the etymology of the concept of openness within the scientific field from the open access movement and the open science movement. It deals with scientific openness based on open publication, which builds a new document model based on digital culture and other modes of sharing, peer review and more effective participation by society. It presents the change in the etymological concept of accountability in science and how it contributes to citizen governance. It debates the question of the impact of openness on the public responsibility of science, how it expands social autonomy in science education and the consolidation of other models of evaluation and validation of science. The applied methodology consists of bibliographic research in the main scientific databases with a temporal cut between the years 2002 and 2020 from the main terms present in the literature on open access and open science that allowed the evolutionary conceptual analysis of the terms studied. It is concluded that a “new social contract for science” is being built, based on the opening of scientific processes, enabling the dissemination of scientific innovations, and underlying data and developing practices that equalize the knowledge of non-scientists with that of scientists. publication sharing society governance 200 202 studied built processes innovations nonscientists non scientists 20 2

RESUMO Neste artigo é discutida a etimologia do conceito de abertura dentro do campo científico a partir do movimento de acesso aberto e do movimento de ciência aberta. Trata da abertura científica a partir da publicação aberta, que constrói um novo modelo de documento a partir da cultura digital e outros modos de compartilhamento, revisão por pares e participação mais efetiva da sociedade. Apresenta a mudança do conceito etimológico de accountability em ciência e como colabora para a governança cidadã. Debate a questão do impacto da abertura na responsabilidade pública da ciência, como amplia a autonomia social em educação científica e a consolidação de outros modelos de avaliação e validação da ciência. A metodologia aplicada consiste em uma pesquisa bibliográfica nas principais bases de dados científicas com recorte temporal entre os anos de 2002 e 2020 a partir dos principais termos presentes na literatura sobre o acesso aberto e ciência aberta que permitiu a análise conceitual evolutiva dos termos estudados. Conclui-se que está sendo construído um “novo contrato social para ciência” pautado na abertura dos processos científicos, possibilitando a difusão das inovações científicas e dados subjacentes e desenvolvendo práticas que equalizem o conhecimento dos não-cientistas com o dos cientistas. compartilhamento sociedade cidadã 200 202 estudados Concluise Conclui se científicos nãocientistas não cientistas 20 2

RESUMO Esse artigo teve como objetivo compreender em que medida as dinâmicas da modernização reflexiva concorreram para que um novo contrato motor emergisse nos contextos do lazer, esporte e Educação Física na contemporaneidade. Frente a esse desiderato, o texto foi estruturado em três seções. Na primeira parte, discutimos como a modernização reflexiva impactou as relações sociais num contexto macrossociológico. Em seguida, abordamos como e em que sentido as autobiografias de movimento foram alteradas na modernidade tardia. Por fim, introduzimos algumas bases para a uma teoria do movimento humano que se apeteça potencial na tradução dos novos sentidos atribuídos ao lazer e ao esporte na sociedade contemporânea.

ABSTRACT This article aimed to understand to what extent the dynamics of reflexive modernization contributed to a new movement contract to emerge in the leisure, sport, and Physical Education contexts in contemporaneity. Given this objective, the text was structured in three sections. In the first part, we discuss how reflexive modernization has impacted social relations in a macro-sociological context. We then discuss how and in what sense movement autobiographies were altered in late modernity. Finally, we introduce some bases for a human movement theory that has the potential to translate the new meanings attributed to leisure and sport in contemporary society.

RESUMEN Este artículo tuvo como objetivo comprender en qué medida la dinámica de la modernización reflexiva contribuyó al surgimiento de un nuevo contrato motor en los contextos del ocio, el deporte y la Educación Física en la época contemporánea. En vista de este objetivo, el texto se estructuró en tres apartados. En la primera parte, discutimos cómo la modernización reflexiva ha impactado las relaciones sociales en un contexto macrosociológico. A continuación, discutimos cómo y en qué sentido se alteraron las autobiografías de movimientos en la modernidad tardía. En la sección final, presentamos algunas bases para una teoría del movimiento humano que tiene potencial para traducir los nuevos significados atribuidos al ocio y al deporte en la sociedad contemporánea.

In 2014, the Danish government launched a plan for health entitled: “Healthier lives for everyone - national goals for the health of Danes within the next 10 years”. The overall objective is to prolong healthy years of life and to reduce inequality in health. In Denmark, the responsibility for health and social care is shared between the central government, the regions and the municipalities. National and local strategies seek to enhance public health through national and local initiatives initiated by different stakeholders. The Danish community pharmacies also contribute to promoting public health through distribution of and counselling on medication in the entire country and through offering several pharmacy services, six of which are fully or partly remunerated on a national level. Because of greater demands from patients, health care professionals and society and a lack of general practitioners, the Danish community pharmacies now have the opportunity to suggest several new functions and services or to extend existing services. The Danish pharmacy law changed in 2015 with the objective to maintain and develop community pharmacies and to achieve increased patient accessibility. The change in the law made it possible for every community pharmacy owner to open a maximum of seven pharmacy branches (apart from the main pharmacy) in a range of 75 km. This change also increased the competition between community pharmacies and consequently the pharmacies are now under financial pressure. On the other hand, each pharmacy may have been given an incentive to develop their specific pharmacy and become the best pharmacy for the patients. Community pharmacies are working to be seen as partners in the health care system. This role is in Denmark increasingly being supported by the government through the remunerated pharmacy services and through contract with municipalities. Concurrent with the extended tasks for the Danish community pharmacies and utilisation of their excellent competencies in medication the community pharmacies need to focus on their main tasks of supplying medicines and implementing services. This requires efficient management, an increased use of technology for distribution and communication and continuing education and training.

Abstract Medical schools play a central role in the compilation and development of professional knowledge, which is why they have privileges and resources that are justified only to the extent that they use them to serve the community, particularly those who are most in need. Medical schools social accountability focuses on the training, healthcare provision and research services they offer. The principles of medical education and the structure proposed by the Flexner Report are in crisis due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and redefinition of the social contract is required. This document offers a proposal for medical schools social accountability that includes anticipation of the needs of the community, patient-centered inter-professional care, training of people in the area of health and collaboration between institutions. It highlights the need for a conscious institution that finds new training spaces other than hospitals, where each patient is cared for in a personalized way, with inter-professional training models that consider the student as a person who takes care of him/herself in open collaboration with organizations. Leaders must act now because it is their social responsibility and because it is the right thing to do.

Resumen Las escuelas de medicina desempeñan un papel central en la acumulación y desarrollo del conocimiento profesional, por lo cual poseen privilegios y recursos que se justifican solo en la medida en que los retribuyan a la comunidad, en particular a los más necesitados. La responsabilidad social de las escuelas de medicina se centra en los servicios formativos, asistenciales y de investigación que ofrecen. Los principios de la educación médica y la estructura propuesta por el Informe Flexner están en crisis debido a la pandemia de COVID-19 y se requiere la redefinición del contrato social. El presente documento ofrece una propuesta de responsabilidad social de las escuelas de medicina que incluye previsión de las necesidades de la comunidad, atención interprofesional centrada en el paciente, formación de profesionales en el área de salud y colaboración entre instituciones. Resalta la necesidad de una institución consciente que encuentre nuevos espacios de entrenamiento diferentes al hospitalario, donde se atienda a cada paciente de forma personalizada, con modelos formativos interprofesionales que consideren al alumno como persona que cuida de sí misma en colaboración abierta con las organizaciones. Los líderes deben actuar ya porque es su responsabilidad social y porque es lo correcto.

Abstract This paper originated in a doctoral thesis whose aim was to analyze the way in which personal, social, professional and teaching practice aspects as well as organizational characteristics correlate to resilience, understood as the creation of new strategies faced with the necessity to resist, seen from a triadic perspective that takes into account the importance of having personal resources, a stable family environment and an external support network. This study was conducted based on a quantitative paradigm with a mixed method. Participants were tenured or part-time Psychology and Engineering professors. The instruments used were the Mexican Resilience Scale and a contextual questionnaire. The quantitative results show low resilience levels in most of the participants, built upon the influence of factors such as strength and confidence in oneself, social competence, perceived family support and structure, which relate in different ways according to the field and type of contract to religiousness, the perception of health situation and the involvement in activities added to teaching. These findings shed light on the need for a more positive organizational perspective that includes the training of professors as professionals, but also as individuals.

Resumen El presente artículo deriva de una tesis doctoral cuyo propósito fue analizar la forma en que los aspectos personales, sociales, profesionales y de la labor docente, así como los institucionales, se relacionan con la resiliencia, entendida esta como la creación de nuevas estrategias a partir de la necesidad de resistir; vista desde la perspectiva triádica, la cual considera la importancia de contar con recursos personales, ambiente familiar estable y redes externas de apoyo. El estudio se desarrolló desde el paradigma cuantitativo con enfoque mixto. Los participantes fueron profesores por horas y tiempo completo de las licenciaturas de Psicología e Ingeniería. Se utilizaron como instrumentos: la Escala de Resiliencia Mexicana y un cuestionario de contexto. Los resultados del análisis cuantitativo destacan bajos niveles de resiliencia en la mayoría de los participantes que es la influencia para la conformación de factores como: fortaleza y confianza en sí mismos, competencia social, apoyo familiar y estructura percibidos; mismos que se relacionan de manera diferenciada, según carrera y tipo de contrato, con la religiosidad, la percepción de salud y la dedicación a funciones añadidas a la docencia. Estos resultados reflejan la necesidad de una mirada organizacional positiva que incluya la formación del profesor como profesional, pero también como individuo.

Some observers regard South Africa as one of the most violent, lawless and morally depraved societies in the world. Several other countries around the world can be shown to be similarly afflicted. In South Africa's case, this condition might be because of political transformation, particularly the lingering effects of the struggle against past injustices (apartheid, racism) inflicted on sections of the population. The social instability has been exacerbated by an influx of migrants and a resultant increase in diversity. One way of attempting to assuage this situation is to harness the school subject known as 'citizenship education' for guiding the upcoming generations into committing to a new moral compass, that is, awareness or consciousness with a conscience, and to an accompanying new social contract. Finding a rationale for such a moral compass and social contract that all the citizens of South Africa and of other similarly stricken countries would be prepared to commit to is a daunting task because people tend to be subjective in reflecting about their personal and group views, particularly about their religious beliefs and convictions. Closer examination reveals, however, that despite all the diversity, differences and conflict prevalent in societies, people are potentially able to share a set of basic values that arguably could form the core of the sought-for moral compass. Citizenship education could be functional in bringing home to the next generation the notion of henceforth living in accordance with the precepts of such a moral compass and social contract.

Las instituciones de educación superior (IES) se enfrentan actualmente a un nuevo contrato social que determina el ejercicio del conocimiento científico y establece condiciones para medir el impacto de sus resultados en la sociedad, a partir de productos de innovación o de la facilitación de la apropiación social del conocimiento. Este contrato se origina en las entidades rectoras del Estado que, a través del establecimiento de políticas, determinan los lineamientos de participación de las IES en los planes de desarrollo socioeconómico que se inscriben en las exigencias de un mundo globalizado. En este artículo se propone la teoría de la gestión del conocimiento como marco del que se desprenden estrategias para que las IES se instauren como organizaciones del conocimiento y racionalicen su participación en la relación entre academia y sociedad4.

Higher education institutions are currently facing a new social contract that determines the performance of scientific knowledge and establishes conditions to measure the impact of their results in society, from innovation products or by facilitating the social appropriation of knowledge. This contract begins in the governing bodies of the State which, through policy-making, establish guidelines for the participation of higher education institutions (in Spanish, IES) in the socio-economic development plans that fall within the requirements of a globalized world. This article posits the knowledge management theory as a framework from which strategies emerge for the establishment of IES as knowledge organizations and the rationalization of their involvement in the academia-society relationship.

As instituições de ensino superior (IES) estão atualmente enfrentando um novo contrato social que determina o exercício do conhecimento científico e estabelece condições para medir o impacto dos seus resultados na sociedade, através de produtos de inovação ou da facilitação da apropriação social do conhecimento. Este contrato tem origem nos órgãos do Estado, através do estabelecimento de políticas, que determinam a participação das IES nos planos de desenvolvimento socioeconômico que fazem parte das exigências de um mundo globalizado. Este artigo discute a teoria da gestão do conhecimento como parte das estratégias que surgem para que as IES sejam estabelecidas como organizações do conhecimento e racionalizem sua participação na relação entre acadêmia e sociedade.

In seventeenth and eighteenth-century Europe, the Age of Enlightenment, eminent political and legal thinkers such as Locke and Rousseau defended the emancipation of the individual and the inalienable, natural rights of man such as the right to life, freedom and equality. They argued that every man is born free and inherently good but that he becomes corrupted by the constraints of society and civilisation. A certain harmony can be found again through a social contract with the state, the ultimate protector of man's inalienable rights. Within this philosophy, education is crucial to develop young people naturally without the negative impact of society. Only nature can elevate man. Enlightenment opened European minds to the exotic and the unknown and, as a consequence, broke with the prejudice of previous centuries against cultural difference. Enlightenment influenced many free-spirits of the day. One such free-spirit was the Frenchman Francois Le Vaillant who travelled through southern Africa between 1781 and 1784. He was not only influenced by the ideas of Rousseau but he was, because of his unusual and liberal education, the very incarnation of Rousseau's philosophy. As he travelled through Southern Africa, Le Vaillant became mesmerised with its indigenous peoples, especially the roaming Koina communities and the Xhosa, who, at that time, still lived a traditional and natural life. Even though he set off on his journeys as an ornithologist and a collector of specimens, Le Vaillant became, as he encountered the Koina and the Xhosa, a defender of the inalienable rights of the natural man. He became an emotional critic of encroachment by colonial settlers upon indigenous lands, forcing the Koina and the Xhosa into poverty, economic dependency, cultural alienation and loss of natural life. Le Vaillant published two travel journals; he introduced a new style of travel writing and made the European reader familiar with southern Africa. In doing so, he played a significant role in the defense of human rights through his criticism of the effects of colonial rule on indigenous peoples, not from an academic point of view but from the heart, based on first-hand experience in the field.

Resumo A redução da participação da população masculina nas atividades econômicas é resultado de sua entrada mais tarde e saída mais cedo do mercado de trabalho. Esta saída não está associada apenas à aposentadoria “precoce”. Entre 1993 e 2013, observou-se um crescimento no número de homens de 50 a 59 anos que não trabalhavam, não procuravam trabalho e não eram aposentados e nem pensionistas (nem nem). A literatura aponta que o trabalho é o evento social mais importante da vida dos homens e os contratos tradicionais de gênero estabelecem os papéis de provedor para eles e o de cuidadora para as mulheres. Esse crescimento sugere mudanças nas relações de gênero, pois se observou uma diminuição na proporção de homens chefes de família e um aumento na de cônjuges bem como de homens morando com os pais. Isto pode ser reflexo das dificuldades experimentadas por eles na inserção no mercado de trabalho, dada, também, a sua baixa escolaridade. Isto requer uma maior participação das mulheres. Essa tendência é contraditória com o novo regime demográfico. A saída tardia das atividades econômicas é um requisito importante para minimizar os desafios trazidos pela redução da força de trabalho e pelo envelhecimento populacional.

Abstract Reduced participation of the male population in economic activities is the result of their later entry and earlier leave from the labor market. This earlier exit is not only associated to “early” retirement. Between 1993 and 2013, there was an increase in the number of men aged 50-59 who were not working, not looking for a job, and were not retired (NER) . The literature stresses that work is the most important social event of a man's life, and the traditional gender contract establishes the breadwinner role for men and the caregiver one for women. This growth suggests changes in gender relations since a decrease was observed in the proportion of male household heads, and an increase in that of male spouses, and of those living with their parents. This may be a consequence of their difficulties in participating in the labor market, also given their low education level; therefore, requiring greater participation from women. This trend is contradictory with the new demographic regime. A later leave from economic activities is an important requirement to minimize the challenges brought about by the reducing workforce and aging population.

Resumo A redução da participação da população masculina nas atividades econômicas é resultado de sua entrada mais tarde e saída mais cedo do mercado de trabalho. Esta saída não está associada apenas à aposentadoria “precoce”. Entre 1993 e 2013, observou-se um crescimento no número de homens de 50 a 59 anos que não trabalhavam, não procuravam trabalho e não eram aposentados e nem pensionistas (nem nem). A literatura aponta que o trabalho é o evento social mais importante da vida dos homens e os contratos tradicionais de gênero estabelecem os papéis de provedor para eles e o de cuidadora para as mulheres. Esse crescimento sugere mudanças nas relações de gênero, pois se observou uma diminuição na proporção de homens chefes de família e um aumento na de cônjuges bem como de homens morando com os pais. Isto pode ser reflexo das dificuldades experimentadas por eles na inserção no mercado de trabalho, dada, também, a sua baixa escolaridade. Isto requer uma maior participação das mulheres. Essa tendência é contraditória com o novo regime demográfico. A saída tardia das atividades econômicas é um requisito importante para minimizar os desafios trazidos pela redução da força de trabalho e pelo envelhecimento populacional.

Abstract Reduced participation of the male population in economic activities is the result of their later entry and earlier leave from the labor market. This earlier exit is not only associated to “early” retirement. Between 1993 and 2013, there was an increase in the number of men aged 50-59 who were not working, not looking for a job, and were not retired (NER) . The literature stresses that work is the most important social event of a man's life, and the traditional gender contract establishes the breadwinner role for men and the caregiver one for women. This growth suggests changes in gender relations since a decrease was observed in the proportion of male household heads, and an increase in that of male spouses, and of those living with their parents. This may be a consequence of their difficulties in participating in the labor market, also given their low education level; therefore, requiring greater participation from women. This trend is contradictory with the new demographic regime. A later leave from economic activities is an important requirement to minimize the challenges brought about by the reducing workforce and aging population.

Adrenal diseases have significant incidence and prevalence; they occur as acute chronic situations. Chronicity and development are both related to behaviours and lifestyles and impose therapeutic demands that lie in the decisions of the person in charge of the patient care. This chronic condition may appear without any symptom and requires an active responsible person for daily care of patients, capable and trained in disease requirements and in necessary therapeutic adjustments, and prepared to act when an acute event occurs. The health care providers should set a therapeutic contract with the patient. This fact requires "know-how" that includes biosocial approach, communicative dexterities and teaching/learning techniques, which are as necessary as the clinical update. The acute adrenal insufficiency may present de novo or results from wrong management of already known chronic condition. There are several causes such as the involuntary omission of medical drug or the concomitant development of a precipitating infective or non-infective illness, which are the most common. The patients suffering chronic adrenal insufficiency need education so that they may be able to acquire new pieces of knowledge, skills and behaviors that allow taking right decisions in the face of possible decompensation.

Las enfermedades adrenales tienen una incidencia y prevalencia no despreciable. Se presentan como situaciones agudas y crónicas. La cronicidad y su desarrollo están relacionados con los comportamientos y estilos de vida, e imponen afrontar exigencias terapéuticas que descansan en las decisiones que la persona asume ante su cuidado. Esta condición crónica puede transitar sin síntomas, y demanda una persona activa y responsable ante su cuidado diario, capaz y formada en los requerimientos de su enfermedad, adiestrada para los ajustes terapéuticos necesarios, y capacitada para actuar ante la presencia de un evento agudo. Los proveedores de salud deben establecer un contrato terapéutico con el enfermo. Este hecho requiere un “saber hacer”, en el cual el enfoque biosocial, las destrezas en la comunicación y las técnicas de enseñanza/aprendizaje resultan tan necesarias como la actualización clínica. La insuficiencia adrenal aguda puede presentarse de novo, o ser consecuencia del mal manejo de una condición crónica ya conocida. Se citan diversas causas, dentro de las que la omisión inadvertida del fármaco o el desarrollo concomitante de un padecimiento precipitante infeccioso o no, resultan las más frecuentes. Los pacientes con insuficiencia adrenal crónica necesitan estar educados para que sean capaces de desarrollar conocimientos, habilidades y conductas que permitan tomar decisiones acertadas ante posibles descompensaciones.

Este artigo discute a natureza e as posturas, atualmente variáveis, da educação por meio da distinção entre os papéis, propósitos e resultados de modelos educativos em níveis nacional e regional (supranacional, não subnacional). Propõe também o surgimento de um novo tipo de modelo regional de educação, que difere dos modelos nacionais em termos de conteúdo, papel e objetivo, e mantém com eles uma relação que não é de hierarquia, de convergência nem de escala. Comparam-se seus papéis no contrato social pela educação, tendo o Sistema Nacional de Educação como modelo-"padrão". Embora ambos sejam parte das contribuições da educação para os meios de produção e distribuição de bem-estar, desempenham papéis diferentes. Como exemplos, o artigo examina o processo Bolonha, na União Europeia (UE), e a natureza e as possíveis consequências do projeto que busca "exportá-lo" para a América Latina. Esses dois casos sugerem que os resultados-chave envolvem a "re-construção" tanto da região quanto, e mais particularmente, da educação superior como setor. O artigo conclui propondo que esses desenvolvimentos podem culminar em divisões funcionais, escalares e setoriais do trabalho educacional.

This paper discusses the currently changing nature and roles of education through distinguishing between the roles, purposes and outcomes of educational models at national and regional (supra- rather than sub-national) levels. It proposes the emergence of a new kind of regional model of education, that differs from national models in content, role and purpose, and where the relationship between the two models is neither hierarchical, converging or scaled-up. The two models are compared in terms of their role in the social contract for education, and the national education system is taken as the 'default' model. While both models are part of education's contribution to the means of production and distribution of well-being, they play different roles. As examples, the paper examines the EU Bologna Process, and the nature and possible consequences of its projected "export' to Latin America, suggesting that in both cases key outcomes involve the "re-construction" of both the region and, especially, higher education as a sector. The paper concludes by suggesting that such developments may culminate in functional, scalar and sectoral divisions of labour of education.

Este trabalho é uma pesquisa de pesquisas que tem em vista efetuar um balanço das experiências de desseriação escolar no ensino fundamental do Brasil, nos últimos 15 anos, buscando resposta, entre outras à indagação sobre se tais experiências têm contribuído para melhorar o desempenho dos alunos ou, ao contrário, à queda de aproveitamento discente. Para tanto foram selecionadas e analisadas 62 pesquisas nacionais, com diferentes enfoques teóricos e metodológicos. Os resultados mostram que diferentes experiências de desseriação apresentam riscos e desvantagens, entre elas a quebra do chamado "contrato social" em que se baseia a escola e que tem na ameaça da reprovação um dos seus esteios. A aceleração da aprendizagem, como programa transitório, apresentou de modo geral resultados positivos. As propostas muitas vezes se ressentem de falhas de implantação e tendem a enfrentar mais resistências quanto mais tentam modificar os códigos educacionais. As pesquisas de maior porte não encontram evidências de que a desseriação rebaixe significativamente o aproveitamento discente, mas também não apresentam indicações de que a mesma o eleve. As experiências internacionais mostram que os países onde a promoção automática é adotada, o aluno é cercado de cuidados para elevar a sua aprendizagem, enquanto, por outro lado, a reprovação se revela uma expressão cultural. As conclusões indicam que o risco da desseriação insiste em contentar-se com a melhoria da eficiência e a redução dos custos, por meio da correção do fluxo discente, mantendo baixos níveis de qualidade e eqüidade.

This paper presents a review of the research literature on primary education policies in the last 15 years in Brazil aimed to reduce the repetition rate by means of the adoption of cycles and other alternatives to the traditional organization in grades. The basic goal is to find if these policies have contributed to improve or to reduce pupils' performance. The study selected 62 research projects, with diverse theoretical and methodological approaches. Results show that different experiences have risks and disadvantages, among them the rupture of the so called social contract for school, partially based on the repetition threat. Accelerated learning projects have showed positive results. However, the deeper the changes aimed toward the educational codes, the stronger are the resistances. Policies not seldom neglect careful implementation. Research projects involving larger populations find that new policies do not improve or reduce pupils' achievement significantly. The international literature emphasizes the importance of strong support to pupils with difficulties. Comparative studies also show that repetition is a cultural, often biased phenomenon. Conclusions warn that policies implemented in the country Brazil may reduce their focus to the mere increase of efficiency and reduction of costs, by correcting the distortion age-grade. Nevertheless, low levels of quality and equity may remain.

Este trabajo es una reseña de las investigaciones sobre las experiencias de políticas educativas que, en los últimos 15 años en Brasil, intentan reducir las altas tasas de repitencia por medio de alternativas a la tradicional organización de la educación primária en grados. Fueron seleccionadas 62 investigaciones nacionales, con diversas orientaciones teóricas y metodológicas. Los resultados revelan que diferentes experiencias presentan riscos y limitaciones, entre ellas el rompimiento del llamado contracto social en que se basa la escuela y que tiene como una de sus bases la amenaza de reprobar el alumno. La acceleración del aprendizaje, como proyecto temporal, alcanza buenos resultados. Las políticas educativas muchas veces no son adecuadamente implementadas, sufriendo mayores resistencias cuando buscan cambiar más profundamente los códigos educativos. Sin embargo, los proyectos de investigación regionales o nacionales no presentan evidencias de reducción o de incremento del rendimiento discente por las políticas alternativas adoptadas. La literatura internacional destaca que los alumnos reciben cuidados muy especiales en los países que siguen la promoción automática, pero la reprobación es una expresión cultural. Las conclusiones advirten que las políticas educativas implementadas pueden incrementar la eficiencia y reducir los costes, mientras se mantienen los bajos niveles de calidad y equidad.