Abstract: Catalan Jesuit Andrés Febrés’ Art of the General Tongue of the Kingdom of Chile (1765) contains the earliest examples of two explicitly Mapuche discourse genres. These are the ‘dialogue between two chiefs’ or dungulun and the ‘discourse’ or coyaghtun. Despite the role they were given as exemplification or protreptic texts, it remains clear that religious biases and a gaze from linguistic and cultural othering have produced a reimagining of the interactions and communities they seek to portray. This ‘clean-up’ of the material raises questions about their value as testimonies to Mapuche language and culture of the time. In this article we propose a critical reading of the material in which we seek out without denying foreign influence - the linguistic threads that may, with a modicum of certainty, be identified as part of contemporary speakers’ repertoires. This task is particularly relevant in current efforts to strengthen the role of textual sources in Mapudungun historical linguistics, that is, in establishing a philological tradition for the tongue. The novel method we propose entails the verification of historical linguistic material by contemporary native speakers of the language. As such, we present the results of a shared reading of the target texts, conducted by a historical linguist and a contemporary speaker. As a result, we highlight a series of under-described linguistic structures (lexicon, morphology, phonology, discourse) which show parallels between contemporary usage or lived memory and materials from over a quarter of a millennium ago.

Resumen: El Arte de la Lengua General del Reyno de Chile (1765), del jesuita Andrés Febrés, contiene los ejemplos más tempranos que poseemos de dos géneros discursivos explícitamente mapuches. Se trata del ‘diálogo entre dos caciques’ o dugulun y el ‘parlamento’ o coyaghtun. A pesar del rol ejemplificador o protréptico que se le da a este material, no cabe duda que el sesgo religioso y la mirada desde la otredad lingüística y cultural producen una reimaginación de la interacciones y las comunidades que se buscan caracterizar. Este ‘depuramiento’ del material pone en cuestión el valor del mismo en cuanto testimonio de la lengua y cultura mapuche de la época. En este artículo proponemos una lectura crítica del material en la cual buscamos, sin desmentir los elementos foráneos, seguir los hilos lingüísticos que podamos, con cierto grado de certeza, identificar como propios de los hablantes de la época. Esta tarea es particularmente relevante en los esfuerzos por fortalecer el rol del material textual en la lingüística histórica del mapudungun, esto es, de establecer una tradición filológica para la lengua. Proponemos como método innovador la verificación del material lingüísticos histórico por parte de los hablantes actuales. En tanto, presentamos los resultados de una lectura compartida de los dos textos en cuestión, realizada por un lingüista histórico y una hablante contemporánea. Destacamos una serie de elementos lingüísticos (léxico, morfología, fonología, discurso) poco descritos que muestran paralelos entre la usanza o memoria actual y los materiales de hace más de un cuarto de milenio.

ABSTRACT Purpose We aimed to provide translation and cultural adaptation of the questionnaire “Quality of Alimentation” from English to Brazilian Portuguese. Methods The transcultural translation process consisted of the following steps: translation of the original English version to Portuguese by two bilingual translators native in the targeted language; Reverse translation by two translators native in the original language; Review of reverse translation; Review of the Portuguese version from the questionnaire by a local committee of experts in bariatric surgery; Pre-trial to evaluate of clarity, comprehension, and overall acceptability by the target population. Results In its final Portuguese version, the questionnaire “Quality of alimentation” was found to be of clear comprehension and easy applicability. Conclusion The questionnaire’s translation and cultural adaptation for Brazilian Portuguese represents an important step towards improving food tolerance evaluation following bariatric surgery. Further studies are however necessary for validation of its psychometric properties in Brazil. Quality Alimentation steps language surgery Pretrial Pre trial clarity population alimentation applicability questionnaires s Brazil

RESUMO Objetivo Traduzir e adaptar transculturalmente o questionário “Quality of Alimentation” do inglês para a língua portuguesa do Brasil. Método O processo de tradução e adaptação transcultural do questionário “Quality of Alimentation” segue as seguintes etapas: tradução por dois tradutores bilíngues nativos do idioma alvo, síntese das versões e retradução por dois tradutores nativos do idioma de origem e, por fim, revisão da retradução para submissão a um comitê de juízes especialistas. Uma vez aprovado, o questionário seguiu para teste com usuários a fim de avaliar a clareza, compreensibilidade e aceitabilidade da versão traduzida. Resultados Na versão final em português brasileiro do questionário “Quality of Alimentation” o instrumento mostrou-se de claro entendimento e fácil aplicabilidade. Conclusão O questionário traduzido e adaptado para o português brasileiro, representa um passo significativo para melhora na avaliação da intolerância alimentar pós cirurgia bariátrica. Novos estudos são necessários para a validação das propriedades psicométricas do instrumento no Brasil. Quality Alimentation Brasil etapas alvo especialistas aprovado clareza traduzida mostrouse mostrou se aplicabilidade bariátrica

ABSTRACT Purpose This study aimed to translate and cross-culturally adapt the “Voice-related Experiences of Nonbinary Individuals” (VENI) to Brazilian Portuguese (BP). Methods Cross-cultural adaptation was performed based on the combined guidelines of the World Health Organization's (WHO) Translation Recommendations and the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN). The process included five stages: a) Translation of the instrument into BP by a translator specialized in the construct and a non-specialist, both native BP speakers and fluent in English; b) Synthesis of the two translations by consensus; c) Back-translation by a translator specialized in the construct and a non-specialist, both native English speakers and fluent in BP; d) Analysis by a committee of five speech-language pathologists voice specialist and the creation of the final version; e) Pre-testing with 21 individuals from the target population, conducted virtually. Results During the translation stage, there were disagreements regarding the title, instructions, response key, and 15 items. In the back-translation stage, there were discrepancies in the format of 12 items and the content of four items. The expert committee's analysis led to changes in the title, instructions, one option in the response key, and eight items to meet the equivalence criteria. In the pre-test, a significantly higher proportion of usual responses to the instrument was observed when compared to the non-applicable option; this is frequently observed in instrument adaptations. Conclusion The cross-cultural adaptation of VENI into Brazilian Portuguese was successful, resulting in the “Experiências relacionadas à Voz de Pessoas Não Binárias - VENI-Br” version. crossculturally cross culturally Voicerelated Voice related Individuals (VENI BP. . (BP) Crosscultural Cross cultural Organizations Organization s WHO (WHO COnsensusbased COnsensus COSMIN. COSMIN (COSMIN) stages nonspecialist, nonspecialist non specialist, non-specialist b consensus c Backtranslation Back d speechlanguage speech language version e Pretesting Pre testing 2 population virtually stage title instructions key 1 backtranslation back committees criteria pretest, pretest pre test, test pre-test nonapplicable applicable adaptations crosscultural successful Experiências VENIBr Br VENI-Br (BP (COSMIN

RESUMO Objetivo Traduzir e adaptar transculturalmente o Voice-related Experiences of Nonbinary Individuals – VENI para o português brasileiro. Método Os procedimentos de adaptação transcultural foram baseados na combinação das recomendações e diretrizes da World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines on Translation com o COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN). Foram realizadas cinco etapas: a) tradução do instrumento para o Português Brasileiro (PB) por um tradutor especialista no construto e um não-especialista, nativos do PB e fluentes em inglês; b) elaboração da síntese das duas traduções por consenso; c) retrotradução por um tradutor especialista no construto e um não-especialista, nativos do inglês e fluentes em PB; d) análise de um comitê formado por cinco fonoaudiólogos especialistas em voz e elaboração da versão final; e) pré-teste com 21 pessoas da população-alvo, aplicado virtualmente. Resultados Na tradução houve discordância no título, instruções, chave de resposta e em 15 itens. Na retrotradução, houve discordância quanto à forma em 12 itens e ao conteúdo em 4 itens. A análise do comitê de especialistas indicou mudanças no título, instruções de resposta, uma opção da chave de resposta, e em oito itens, para atender aos critérios de equivalência. No pré-teste houve proporção significativamente maior de respostas habituais do instrumento quando comparadas com a opção não-aplicável, usada regularmente nas adaptações de instrumentos. Conclusão A adaptação transcultural para o português brasileiro do VENI foi bem sucedida e resultou na versão denominada “Experiências relacionadas a Voz de Pessoas Não Binárias - VENI-Br”. Voicerelated Voice related WHO (WHO COnsensusbased COnsensus based COSMIN. COSMIN . (COSMIN) etapas (PB nãoespecialista, nãoespecialista não especialista, não-especialista b consenso c d final préteste pré teste 2 populaçãoalvo, populaçãoalvo população alvo, alvo população-alvo virtualmente título 1 equivalência nãoaplicável, nãoaplicável aplicável, aplicável não-aplicável instrumentos Experiências VENIBr. VENIBr Br VENI-Br” (COSMIN VENI-Br

BACKGROUND: Language analytic ability is well researched in the context of foreign language acquisition but its role in the acquisition of grammar in the native language is under investigation. OBJECTIVES: Our study explored the influence of language analytic ability and print exposure on receptive grammar and reading comprehension in childhood. Additionally, we investigated whether exposure to specific constructions through the written modality held an advantage over exposure in the audio modality. METHOD: We assessed the language analytic ability, reading comprehension, reading fluency, print exposure, and receptive grammar of 12-year-olds. Subsequently, we exposed them to written or spoken target constructions, followed by an assessment of receptive grammar. Linear regression models were used to analyse the contributions of reading fluency, print exposure, and language analytic ability to reading comprehension and receptive grammar. We also examined the influence of the intervention on receptive grammar. RESULTS: Language analytic ability and print exposure significantly predicted receptive grammar. Print exposure significantly predicted reading comprehension and improvement in receptive grammar. CONCLUSION: Language analytic ability is important for grammar and reading comprehension development. Print exposure enhances reading comprehension by supporting vocabulary development and providing exposure to intricate structures. Both language analytic ability and experience are key factors in construction acquisition. CONTRIBUTION: This study adds to the growing body of evidence emphasising the role of language analytic skills in native language grammar acquisition and advocates for explicit grammar teaching. Furthermore, it underscores the importance of adequate print exposure in grammar acquisition and the development of reading comprehension skills.

Abstract This work aims to discuss the development of L2 English rhythm by Brazilian learners (L2ers) through rhythmic metrics and acoustic parameters. Five L2ers were recorded reading a text in English at the beginning of their college studies in English Language and Literature, and again, four semesters later, after having taken two English phonology courses. They were also recorded reading a Portuguese version of the same text. As for the control group, five native speakers of a North American variety of English were recorded reading the text in English. Data were manually segmented in PRAAT, and the indexes were automatically extracted. As for English-L2, different developmental paths were captured as function of the rhythm dimension, with L1 influencing more L2ers’ rhythm in the f0 and intensity dimensions. Crucially, L2 rhythm patterns converged to the target language in all dimensions, suggesting positive effects of explicit pronunciation teaching. L Lers ers (L2ers parameters Literature again later courses group PRAAT extracted EnglishL2, EnglishL2 EnglishL L2, English-L2 dimension f dimensions Crucially teaching English-L

ABSTRACT Objective: To translate and cross-culturally adapt the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium anchor points from English to Brazilian Portuguese. Methods: For the translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the anchor points, all steps recommended internationally were followed after authorization for use by the lead author. The stages were as follows: translation of the original version into Portuguese by two bilingual translators who were native speakers of the target language, synthesis of the versions, reverse translation by two translators who were native speakers of the source language, review and synthesis of the back-translation, review by a committee of experts and preparation of the final version. Results: The translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the anchor points was conducted in accordance with recommendations. The linguistic and semantic issues that arose were discussed by a committee of judges, with 91.8% agreement, as determined using a Likert scale, after changes by consensus. After reanalysis by the authors, there were no changes, resulting in the final version, which was easy to understand and administer. Conclusion: The translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the anchor points of the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium scale into Portuguese spoken in Brazil were successful, maintaining the linguistic and semantic properties of the original instrument. The table of anchor points is easy to understand and will be helpful during the assessment of children younger than 24 months using the Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium scale. Objective crossculturally cross culturally Methods crosscultural cultural author follows language versions backtranslation, backtranslation back translation, back-translation Results recommendations judges 918 91 8 91.8 agreement consensus authors administer Conclusion successful instrument 2 9 91.

RESUMO Objetivo: Traduzir e realizar a adaptação transcultural dos pontos âncoras da escala Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium do inglês para a língua portuguesa do Brasil. Métodos: O processo de tradução e adaptação transcultural dos pontos âncoras seguiu todas as etapas recomendadas internacionalmente após a autorização de uso pela autora principal. As etapas foram: tradução da versão original para língua portuguesa por dois tradutores bilíngues nativos do idioma-alvo; síntese das versões; tradução reversa por dois tradutores nativos do idioma de origem; revisão e síntese da retradução; revisão por um comitê de juízes formado por especialistas e elaboração da versão final. Resultados: O processo de tradução e adaptação transcultural dos pontos âncoras seguiu as recomendações. As questões linguísticas e semânticas que surgiram foram discutidas pelo comitê de juízes, no qual se observou concordância de 91,8% pela escala de Likert com pequenas alterações de forma consensual. Após reanálise dos autores, não houve alterações, resultando na versão final, de fácil compreensão e administração. Conclusão: A tradução e a adaptação transcultural dos pontos âncoras da escala de Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium para a língua portuguesa falada no Brasil foram bem-sucedidas com manutenção das propriedades linguísticas e semânticas do instrumento original. A tabela dos pontos âncoras mostrou ser de fácil compreensão e auxílio durante a avaliação das crianças abaixo de 24 meses por meio da escala de Cornell Assessment of Pediatric Delirium. Objetivo Métodos principal idiomaalvo alvo idioma-alvo versões origem retradução final Resultados recomendações 918 91 8 91,8 consensual autores administração Conclusão bemsucedidas bem sucedidas 2 9 91,

Abstract This is a study of Interlanguage Pragmatics that investigates the verbal politeness strategies used by Chinese learners of Spanish to refuse an offer, in comparison with two control groups consisting of native speakers of Spanish and Chinese. The aim of the paper is to study the use of pragmatic strategies with respect to different contextual variables (relative power and social distance) and to verify whether there is pragmatic transfer in the refusals elaborated by Chinese learners of Spanish. For data collection, we used a Discourse completion task composed of four situations with different degrees of relative power and social distance for the realization of refusals. As a result of the analysis, discordance in the use of refusal strategies is observed between Chinese learners of Spanish and native speakers of Spanish, thus evidencing the presence of negative pragmatic transfer from the native language to the target language. Moreover, the results also indicate that speakers from the two speech communities share certain strategies for elaborating an offer rejection, e.g., the strategies of “Excuse”, “Expression of regret” and “Negative Capacity/willingness”.

Resumen El presente es un trabajo de pragmática de interlengua que investiga las estrategias de cortesía verbal utilizadas por los aprendientes chinos de español para rechazar una oferta, en comparación con dos grupos de control compuestos por hablantes nativos de español y de chino. El objetivo del trabajo consiste en estudiar el uso de las estrategias pragmáticas con respecto a las distintas variables contextuales (el poder relativo y la distancia social) y comprobar si existe transferencia pragmática en los rechazos elaborados por los aprendientes chinos de español. Para la recolección de los datos, empleamos un cuestionario tipo Discourse completion task constituido por cuatro situaciones con distinto grado de poder relativo y distancia social para el despliegue del rechazo a ofertas. Como resultado del análisis se observan discordancias en la elección y la frecuencia de las estrategias de rechazo entre los aprendientes chinos de español y los hablantes nativos de español, así que se evidencia la presencia de transferencia pragmática negativa de la lengua materna a la lengua meta. Además, los resultados indican también que hablantes de las dos comunidades de habla comparten ciertas estrategias para elaborar un rechazo a una oferta, por ejemplo, las estrategias de “Excusa”, “Disculpa” y “Capacidad/voluntad negativa”.

Abstract The Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ) is a self-administered instrument to assess adolescent patients' satisfaction with orthodontic treatment. A pre-existing North American instrument was further explored in the Netherlands. Semantic equivalence is part of cross-cultural adaptation and is necessary to achieve a valid and reliable instrument for a specific culture. The present study aimed to evaluate the semantic equivalence of the items, subscales, and overall PSQ between the original English version and the Brazilian Portuguese language version (B-PSQ). The PSQ has 58 items, distributed across 6 subscales: doctor-patient relationship, situational aspects of the clinic, dentofacial improvement, psychosocial improvement, dental function, and a residual category. Semantic equivalence was evaluated according to the following methods: (1) independent translations to Portuguese by two translators, both native in Brazilian Portuguese and fluent in English; (2) an expert committee drafted the first summarized version in Portuguese; (3) two independent back-translations into English by two native English-speaking translators fluent in Portuguese; (4) committee review; (5) committee drafted a summarized version of the back-translations; (6) expert committee drafted the second summarized version in Portuguese; (7) pre-test of the instrument using individual semi-structured interviews with 10 adolescents; (8) review and final version of the B-PSQ. Semantic equivalence between the original and the Brazilian versions of the questionnaire was achieved through diligent and rigorous methods, with effective translation and expert evaluations, incorporating the opinions of the target population. (PSQ selfadministered self administered patients treatment preexisting pre existing Netherlands crosscultural cross cultural culture items subscales BPSQ. BPSQ B . (B-PSQ) 5 doctorpatient doctor patient relationship clinic improvement function category methods 1 (1 2 (2 3 (3 backtranslations back Englishspeaking speaking 4 (4 (5 (6 7 (7 pretest test semistructured semi structured adolescents 8 (8 PSQ. B-PSQ evaluations population (B-PSQ (

Resumo O Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ) é um instrumento autorrelatado específico para avaliar a satisfação de pacientes adolescentes com o tratamento ortodôntico. Um instrumento norte-americano pré-existente foi mais explorado na Holanda. A equivalência semântica faz parte da adaptação transcultural e é necessária para se obter um instrumento válido e confiável para uma cultura específica. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a equivalência semântica dos itens, subescalas e escore geral do PSQ entre a versão original em inglês e a versão em português do Brasil (B-PSQ). O PSQ possui 58 itens, distribuídos em 6 subescalas; relação médico-paciente, aspectos situacionais da clínica, melhora dentofacial, melhora psicossocial, função dentária e uma categoria residual. A equivalência semântica foi avaliada de acordo com o seguinte método: 1) traduções independentes para o português por dois tradutores, ambos nativos em português brasileiro e fluentes em inglês; 2) um comitê de experts elaborou a primeira versão síntese em português; 3) duas retro-traduções independentes para o inglês por dois tradutores nativos de língua inglesa fluentes em português; 4) revisão do comitê; 5) o comitê elaborou uma versão síntese das retro-traduções; 6) comitê de experts redigiu a segunda versão síntese em português; 7) pré-teste do instrumento por meio de entrevistas individuais semiestruturadas com 10 adolescentes; 8) revisão e versão final do B-PSQ. A equivalência semântica entre as versões original e brasileira do questionário foi alcançada por meio de métodos cuidadosos e rigorosos, com tradução eficaz e avaliações de experts, incorporando as opiniões da população-alvo. (PSQ ortodôntico norteamericano norte americano préexistente pré existente Holanda específica itens BPSQ. BPSQ B . (B-PSQ) 5 médicopaciente, médicopaciente médico paciente, paciente médico-paciente clínica dentofacial psicossocial residual método 1 2 3 retrotraduções retro 4 7 préteste teste 8 PSQ. B-PSQ rigorosos populaçãoalvo. populaçãoalvo população alvo. alvo população-alvo (B-PSQ

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To translate and cross-culturally adapt the COPD in Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) Assessment (COLA) questionnaire into Brazilian Portuguese, a case-finding instrument for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). METHODS Translation and cross-cultural adaptation were completed in six steps: the original version was translated into Brazilian Portuguese by two native speakers of the target language; the translated versions were synthesized; back-translation was performed by two native speakers of the original language; the back-translation and the Brazilian Portuguese version of the COLA were reviewed and harmonized by an expert committee of specialists; and, then, the pre-final version was tested by 30 health professionals who were asked if the items were clear to understand. The acceptability, clarity, and understandability of the translated version were evaluated. A final review of the questionnaire was produced by the authors and approved by the author of the original questionnaire. RESULTS Some idiomatic, semantic, and experiential inconsistencies were identified and properly adjusted. Item 3 was considered the most unclear item (23,3%). Items 7, 8, and 9 presented clarity above 80% (93%, 90%, and 90%, respectively). Suggestions were discussed and incorporated into the tool and COLA was found to be clear and easy to understand. CONCLUSIONS The Brazilian version of the COLA was easily understood by healthcare professionals and adapted to Brazilian culture. Translation and cultural adaptation of the COLA instrument into Brazilian Portuguese can be an important case-finding instrument for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Brazil.

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To translate and cross-culturally adapt the COPD in Low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) Assessment (COLA) questionnaire into Brazilian Portuguese, a case-finding instrument for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). METHODS Translation and cross-cultural adaptation were completed in six steps: the original version was translated into Brazilian Portuguese by two native speakers of the target language; the translated versions were synthesized; back-translation was performed by two native speakers of the original language; the back-translation and the Brazilian Portuguese version of the COLA were reviewed and harmonized by an expert committee of specialists; and, then, the pre-final version was tested by 30 health professionals who were asked if the items were clear to understand. The acceptability, clarity, and understandability of the translated version were evaluated. A final review of the questionnaire was produced by the authors and approved by the author of the original questionnaire. RESULTS Some idiomatic, semantic, and experiential inconsistencies were identified and properly adjusted. Item 3 was considered the most unclear item (23,3%). Items 7, 8, and 9 presented clarity above 80% (93%, 90%, and 90%, respectively). Suggestions were discussed and incorporated into the tool and COLA was found to be clear and easy to understand. CONCLUSIONS The Brazilian version of the COLA was easily understood by healthcare professionals and adapted to Brazilian culture. Translation and cultural adaptation of the COLA instrument into Brazilian Portuguese can be an important case-finding instrument for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Brazil. crossculturally cross culturally Low middleincome middle income LMICs (LMICs (COLA casefinding case finding COPD. . (COPD) crosscultural steps language synthesized backtranslation back translation specialists then prefinal pre understand acceptability evaluated idiomatic semantic adjusted 23,3%. 233 23,3% 23 (23,3%) 7 8 80 93%, 93 (93% 90 90% respectively. respectively respectively) culture Brazil (COPD 23,3 2 (23,3% 93% (93 23, (23,3 (9 (23, ( (23 (2

RESUMEN La literacidad académica en una lengua extranjera es una competencia a desarrollarse hoy en día. Sin embargo, los enfoques hacia la escritura en una segunda lengua se rigen tradicionalmente por perspectivas monolingües, reforzando la idea de una deseada homogeneidad lingüística que sitúa al hablante nativo como referente. El translingüismo reconoce la variedad de contextos propios del ámbito educativo, desafiando el dominio del inglés como lengua vehicular en comunidades académicas. El translingüismo ofrece una comprensión amplia de cómo ocurren las prácticas letradas, entendiendo el cambio entre una lengua hacia otra como una evidencia de un repertorio lingüístico, en lugar de interferencia lingüística. Esta revisión de literatura pretende describir la contribución del translingüismo en el desarrollo de la literacidad académica en el ámbito universitario. Los principales resultados observados en los estudios empíricos revisados aquí hacen referencia a la importancia de la lengua materna en el desarrollo de la identidad del escritor, a las implicancias del translingüismo en los procesos de escritura en segunda lengua, y a las prácticas letradas multimodales y digitales. Se concluye que se requieren perspectivas alternativas respecto a los procesos de literacidad académica para comprender las prácticas letradas en contextos universitarios actuales al escribir en una lengua extranjera.

ABSTRACT Academic literacy in a foreign language is a competence to be developed nowadays. However, approaches towards second language writing have traditionally been informed by monolingual perspectives, which reinforce the idea of a desired linguistic homogeneity with the native speaker as a referent. Translanguaging acknowledges the variety of backgrounds in current educational contexts, challenging the dominance of English as a target language within academic communities. Translingualism provides an ample comprehension of literacy practices occurring worldwide, where shuttling between codes is considered as evidence of linguistic repertoire instead of language interference. This literature review aims at describing contributions of translingualism to the development of academic literacy at tertiary level. Importance of L1 in the development of the writer’s identity, implications of translingualism in second language writing and multimodality and digital translingual practices are described as the main results reported in empirical research. To conclude, alternative insights towards academic literacy seem necessary to understand current literacy practices at university level when writing in a foreign language.

When translating texts into a language that lacks relevant terminology, translation equivalence is difficult to achieve, and the accuracy, accessibility and effectiveness of communication of the translated texts may be compromised. This article investigated various approaches to the translation of terminology when no direct translation equivalents were available in the target languages. The researchers performed a comparative analysis of strategies applied in the translation of the South African Constitution from English into Xitsonga, Siswati and isiNdebele. Firstly, Voyant tools were used to identify terms in the English version. Secondly, a multilingual concordancer (ParaConc) was employed to extract translation equivalence. ParaConc allows for contrastive studies on aligned corpora. The strategies that were found were borrowing, paraphrasing, derivation and compounding. Paraphrasing, derivation and compounding are productive strategies, because equivalents are formed using the already existing words in the languages which native speakers clearly understand. The use of borrowing revealed a critical need for terminology development work in these languages to avoid transliterating terms from foreign languages in which the meaning is not directly clear to the native speakers. This article also demonstrated the usefulness of computational approaches in identifying terminology and translation techniques in the context of South Africa's official languages. CONTRIBUTION: The article demonstrates word-formation strategies that were used in the translated South African constitution from English into Xitsonga, Siswati and isiNdebele when no translation equivalents of terminology are available in these target languages

ABSTRACT This article analyzes the pragmatic competence in the Spanish interlanguage through the study of a speech act: the requesting. For that, 40 text productions from the Corpus de Aprendices de Español (CAES) (Instituto Cervantes and Universidade de Santiago de Compostela), made by Spanish as a Foreign Language (SFLE) A2 students, were examined quantitatively and qualitatively. The data was compared with a sample from 22 Spanish native speakers with the same social profile: male and female with high level studies and ages from 18 to 40 years old. Results show that Spanish learners know the characteristics of this speech act in the target language, but they do not recognise some linguistic and discourse patterns of its expression. For this reason, we propose some improvements for the teaching of the pragmatic component in the SFL classroom.

RESUMEN El presente artículo analiza la competencia pragmática en la interlengua del español, a partir del estudio de un acto de habla: la solicitud. Para ello, se han examinado cuantitativa y cualitativamente las estrategias pragmalingüísticas empleadas en 40 producciones textuales del Corpus de Aprendices de Español (CAES) (Instituto Cervantes y Universidade de Santiago de Compostela), realizadas por estudiantes de español como lengua extranjera (ELE) de nivel A2. Los datos obtenidos se han comparado con los de una muestra de 22 hablantes nativos de español con el mismo perfil social: varones y mujeres de estudios superiores y con edades comprendidas entre los 18 y los 40 años. Los resultados del estudio indican que los aprendices no nativos conocen las características del acto de habla en la lengua meta, pero no están familiarizados con algunos de los mecanismos discursivos propios de su expresión, lo que nos lleva a proponer algunas mejoras para la enseñanza del componente pragmático en el aula de ELE.

RESUMO Este artigo discute a aquisição da regra de retração do acento do inglês por falantes do português brasileiro, lançando luzes sobre a influência da L1 e do ensino na aquisição de uma L2. Foi aplicado um experimento no qual 37 falantes nativos e não-nativos de inglês produziram as mesmas palavras isoladamente, em contexto de choque acentual e em contexto sem choque acentual, de modo que se pudesse observar a produtividade desse fenômeno. Os resultados encontrados mostram que a retração ocorreu em proporções semelhantes em contextos com e sem choque acentual e que os aprendizes de nível avançado se aproximaram bastante da taxa de aplicação dos nativos. Também se observou que palavras terminadas em obstruinte não favoreceram a aplicação da regra enquanto palavras terminadas em vogal longa ou nasal favoreceram, o que evidencia que a estrutura silábica e o inventário segmental da L1 afetam os resultados da L2.

ABSTRACT By addressing the acquisition of the English stress-shift rule by speakers of Brazilian Portuguese, this article sheds more light on the debate about the influence of first language and formal instruction on the acquisition of a second language. We carried out an experiment in which 37 native and non-native English speakers were asked to pronounce the same words as single words, in stress clash and non-stress clash contexts in order to observe the productivity of this phenomenon. The results show that stress shift occurs in similar proportions in contexts with and without stress clash and that productivity of the phenomenon among the advanced-level learners was very similar to that of the native speakers. We also found that words ending in an obstruent do not favor the application of the rule, whereas words ending in long vowels or nasals do. These findings show that syllable structure and the segmental inventory of the first language affect the results in the target language.

Abstract Accumulating evidence over the last two decades has established the causal role of a unidirectional orthography in shaping speakers, mental representations of time. Casasanto and Bottini (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 473-479, 2014) extended previous findings by showing that exposure to mirror-reversed orthography of speakers' native language could completely redirect their mental timelines within minutes. However, the question of whether such a causal effect of writing direction on temporal cognition can be identified in speakers whose native languages adopt bidirectional orthographies remains underexplored in the literature. To address this issue, the present study focused on Japanese which uses bidirectional writing systems, one proceeding horizontally from left to right (HLR) and one vertically from top to bottom (VTB). Two experiments were performed, and the tasks asked participants to process standard/mirror orthography prime questions about time arranged horizontally or vertically, followed by horizontal or vertical arrays of pictorial target stimuli about temporal relations. Results demonstrated that Japanese speakers encoded passage of time into a top-to-bottom linear path commensurate with the VTB writing direction, but they did not align their mental representations of time with the HLR writing orientation. Accordingly, exposure to mirror-reversed bidirectional orthographies redirected Japanese speakers' vertical but not horizontal space-time mappings. Theoretical implications concerning the causal effects of bidirectional orthographies and the generalizability of the representational flexibility of time maintained by Casasanto and Bottini (Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143,473-479) are discussed.