Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi of various genera. Among the most important mycotoxins are those produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium sp., which can be divided into several groups for study, which are the groups of trichothecenes (and T-2 toxin), fumonisins, mainly fumonisin B1 (B1, B2, B3, B4, A1, and A2), and zearalenone with estrogenic effects. Although fusariotoxins cause similar effects because they share the same mechanism of action, by altering protein synthesis in intoxicated poultry, it is important to mention the incidence as well as the characteristics between each of them. Therefore, the characteristics of each group mentioned are described in each section.

Resumen Las micotoxinas son metabolitos secundarios producidos por hongos de diversos géneros. Dentro de las micotoxinas más importantes se encuentran aquellas producidas por hongos del género Fusarium sp., el cual puede dividirse en varios grupos para su estudio que son el grupo de los tricotecenos (y toxina T-2), de las fumonisinas, principalmente fumonisina B1 (B1, B2, B3, B4, A1 Y A2) y de la zearalenona de efectos estrogénicos. Aunque las fusariotoxinas causan efectos similares debido a que comparten el mismo mecanismo de acción; mediante la alteración de síntesis de proteínas en las aves intoxicadas, es importante mencionar la incidencia, así como las características entre cada una de ellas. Es por esto que en cada apartado se describen las características de cada grupo mencionado.

Abstract In the field of non-thermal food processing technologies, the application of cold plasma stands out for its rapid growth and broad prospects. Cold plasma is generated by applying energy to ionize a specific gas, producing highly reactive species such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, as well as ozone, ions, free radicals, and ultraviolet radiation. The most common configurations for generating cold plasma include dielectric barrier discharge and corona discharge. Key applications and effects include the destruction of biofilms, inactivation of microorganisms, decontamination of mycotoxins, degradation of pesticides, and modification of starches, among others. Proposed mechanisms of action range from chemical and molecular modifications to cellular lysis and genetic damage. This article provides an updated overview of the principles, generation, and applications of cold plasma technology in the food industry.

Resumen En el ámbito de las tecnologías no térmicas para el procesamiento de alimentos, la aplicación de plasma frío destaca por su rápido crecimiento y amplias proyecciones. El plasma frío se genera aplicando energía que ioniza un gas específico, lo que produce especies altamente reactivas como las reactivas de oxígeno y nitrógeno, además de ozono, iones, radicales libres y radiación ultravioleta. Las configuraciones más comunes para su generación incluyen la descarga de barrera dieléctrica y la descarga corona. Sus aplicaciones y efectos clave abarcan la destrucción de biofilms, inactivación de microorganismos, descontaminación de micotoxinas, degradación de pesticidas y modificación de almidones, entre otros. Los mecanismos de acción propuestos varían desde modificaciones químicas y moleculares hasta lisis celular y daño genético. Este artículo proporciona una visión general actualizada sobre los principios, generación y aplicaciones del plasma frío en la industria alimentaria.

Tomatoes are an important and versatile crop with a short shelf life. Postharvest losses due to fruit decay and handling are reportedly as high as 30-50% globally; therefore, the agricultural sector would benefit from solutions that target the preservation of crops such as tomatoes. In this study, we investigated the potential use of sulfur dioxide (SO2) to provide postharvest protection against fungal decay in tomatoes whilst maintaining the quality of tomato fruit. Three tomato varieties packed as bulk (3-5 kg) cartons were exposed to SO2-generating sheets applied as either a top sheet over the fruit or a bottom sheet placed on the base of the carton before packing the fruit on the top. The results show that the application of SO2-generating sheets reduced the natural progression of decay on 'Roma' tomatoes by up to 60% and up to 80% on 'Rosa' tomatoes. Only marginal decay control was observed on 'Round' tomatoes. The top sheet application rendered the best results, as the application of the bottom sheet resulted in phytotoxicity in the form of SO2 damage. SO2 application reduced fruit shrivelling, especially when tomatoes were stored at higher temperatures during their shelf life. The application of SO2 on the tomatoes did not have any negative effects on fruit firmness. The results of this study provide a case to further explore the use of SO2-generating sheets on tomatoes to prevent postharvest decay. Differences in varietal physiology may be key to the successful application of this technology. SIGNIFICANCE: Tomatoes are a crop that is highly susceptible to postharvest decay. These effects lie mainly with the end consumer. Besides the monetary loss of buying a commodity that rots quickly, pathogens infecting tomatoes are known to produce mycotoxins that pose a risk to human health. With food availability and safety concerns, the application of a product that could reduce these concerns would be beneficial to the agricultural sector.

Resumen El maíz (Zea mays L.) es uno de los cultivos más sembrados en el mundo, siendo Argentina líder mundial en producción y exportación. La Provincia de Santiago del Estero, el este de Tucumán y el norte de Córdoba abarcan ocho zonas agroclimáticas en la región Chaco semiárida, la cual se caracteriza por un amplio rango de temperatura y frecuentes sequías que exponen al cultivo a patógenos, particularmente Aspergillus flavus, responsable de la podredumbre de la espiga y la contaminación de granos con micotoxinas como aflatoxina B1 y ácido ciclopiazónico. Se obtuvieron aislados del hongo desde espigas de maíz y se caracterizaron según capacidad toxigénica y morfotipos de esclerocios (S < 400 μm, asociados con elevados niveles de aflatoxinas y L > 400 μm, relacionados con niveles variables de aflatoxinas). Además, aquellos que no producían aflatoxinas se estudiaron para determinar sus relaciones filogenéticas sobre la base de un segmento del gen CaM. Cincuenta y ocho aislados fueron obtenidos en ocho localidades representativa de cada zona agroclimática, 30 de los cuales resultaron no aflatoxigénicos, 28 aflatoxigénicos y todos productores de ácido ciclopiazónico. Seis aislados no produjeron esclerocios, 51 fueron L y solo uno fue S, siendo este último no aflatoxigénico. El número de esclerocios correlacionó positivamente con la producción de aflatoxina B1, mientras que el tamaño lo hizo de manera negativa. Las secuencias del gen CaM corroboraron que los aislados pertenecen al clado A. flavus y la alta similitud nucleotídica (99,4% a 100%) reveló casi nula diversidad genética en esta región. No se observaron diferencias en la proporción de aislados entre campañas agrícolas estudiadas ni distritos agroclimáticos. Esta investigación reveló características de las poblaciones de hongos en esta región agrícola del norte argentino.

Abstract Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most widely planted crops globally with Argentina leading world production and exportation. Santiago del Estero province, east of Tucumán and north of Córdoba encompasses eight agro-climatic zones in the Chaco Semi-arid region, agro-ecologically characterized by a wide temperature range and frequent drought periods that expose the crop to pathogens, particularly Aspergillus flavus. This pathogen is responsible for ear rot and grain contamination with mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 and cyclopiazonic acid. This study obtained fungal isolates from ears of maize and characterized them according to toxigenic capability and morphotype of sclerotia (S < 400 μm, associated with high levels of aflatoxins and L > 400 μm, related to variable levels of aflatoxins). In addition, those not producing aflatoxins were studied to determine phylogenetic relationships based on sequences of a segment of the CaM gene. Fifty-eight isolates were obtained in eight localities representing each agro-climatic zone, 30 of which were non-aflatoxigenic, 28 aflatoxigenic, and all producers of ciclopiazonic acid. Six isolates did not produce sclerotia, 51 were L and only one was S, the latter being a non-producer of aflatoxins. The number of sclerotia was positively correlated with the production of aflatoxin B1, while size was negatively correlated. The CaM gene sequences corroborated that the isolates belonged to the A. flavus clade and the high nucleotide similarity among them (99.4% to 100%) revealed almost zero genetic diversity in this geographic region. No significant differences were observed in the proportion of isolates between growing seasons or among agroclimatic districts. This research revealed characteristics of fungus populations in this agricultural region of north Argentina.

Abstract Nowadays, fungal contamination of medical Cannabis inflorescences during postharvest has become an increasingly frequent and worrisome problem for consumers and the industry in general. This is because some of these microorganisms can produce secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins, which can be toxic to humans. To assess the risk posed by fungal contamination and evaluate the potential for fungal isolates to produce mycotoxins, samples of medicinal Cannabis were tested for the presence of mycotoxin-forming fungi. Inflorescences were isolated on PDA agar at 23 ± 2 °C for ten days, and the microorganisms were identified. The strain with morphological characteristics compatible with the genus Aspergillus spp. was selected as the fungus with the highest risk of forming hazardous mycotoxins. This isolate was characterized conventionally and by molecular identification using primers for the internal transcribed spacer region (ITS) of ribosomal DNA and different coding genes and was identified as Aspergillus westerdijkiae. To determine mycotoxin formation, the genome of A. westerdijkiae was sequenced using the Illumina Novaseq platform in South Korea. The antiSMASH tool was used to search for gene clusters associated with producing secondary metabolites, and genes related to toxins were manually curated. Regions where the cluster of genes directly involved in OTA biosynthesis (otaA, otaB, otaC, otaR and otaD) were found, suggesting a potential risk of synthesis of this toxin.

Abstract Maize (Zea mays L.) is of socioeconomic importance as an essential food for human and animal nutrition. However, cereals are susceptible to attack by mycotoxin-producing fungi, which can damage health. The methods most commonly used to detect and quantify mycotoxins are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, alternative non-destructive methods are required urgently. The present study aimed to use near-infrared spectroscopy with hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) and multivariate image analysis to develop a rapid and accurate method for quantifying fumonisins in whole grains of six naturally contaminated maize cultivars. Fifty-eight samples, each containing 40 grains, were subjected to NIR-HSI. These were subsequently divided into calibration (38 samples) and prediction sets (20 samples) based on the multispectral data obtained. The averaged spectra were subjected to various pre-processing techniques (standard normal variate (SNV), first derivative, or second derivative). The most effective pre-treatment performed on the spectra was SNV. Partial least squares (PLS) models were developed to quantify the fumonisin content. The final model presented a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.98 and root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the calibration set, an R2 of 0.95 and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the test validation set and a ratio of performance to deviation of 4.7. It was concluded that NIR-HSI with partial least square regression is a rapid, effective, and non-destructive method to determine the fumonisin content in whole maize grains. Zea L. L nutrition However mycotoxinproducing mycotoxin producing fungi health timeconsuming. timeconsuming time consuming. consuming time-consuming Therefore nondestructive non destructive urgently nearinfrared near infrared NIRHSI NIR HSI (NIR-HSI cultivars Fiftyeight Fifty eight samples 4 NIRHSI. HSI. 38 (3 20 (2 obtained preprocessing pre processing standard SNV, SNV , (SNV) derivative derivative. . derivative) pretreatment treatment PLS (PLS R (R2 098 0 98 0.9 RMSEC (RMSEC 50 µg.kg1 µgkg1 µgkg µg.kg 1 µg kg µg.kg- 095 95 RMSEP (RMSEP 47 7 4.7 3 ( 2 (SNV (R 09 9 0. 5 kg1 4.

Resumo O milho (Zea mays L.) possui importância socioeconômica por constituir um dos alimentos básicos na nutrição humana e animal. Porém, o cereal é suscetível ao ataque de fungos produtores de micotoxinas que podem causar danos à saúde. Os métodos mais utilizados para detectar e quantificar micotoxinas são caros e demorados e métodos alternativos para a detecção das micotoxinas são uma necessidade. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo utilizar espectroscopia no infravermelho próximo com imagem hiperespectral (NIR-HSI) e análise multivariada de imagens para desenvolver um método rápido e preciso para quantificação de fumonisinas em grãos inteiros de seis cultivares de milho naturalmente contaminadas. Cinquenta e oito amostras, cada uma contendo 40 grãos, foram submetidas ao NIR-HSI e posteriormente divididas em um conjunto de calibração (38 amostras) e um conjunto de predição (20 amostras) com base nos dados multiespectrais obtidos. Os espectros médios foram submetidos a diversas técnicas de pré-processamento (variação normal padrão – SNV, primeira derivada ou segunda derivada). O melhor pré-processamento dos espectros foi SNV e um modelo de mínimos quadrados parciais (PLS) foi desenvolvido para quantificar o teor de fumonisinas. O modelo final apresentou coeficiente de correlação (R2) de 0,98 e raiz quadrada do erro médio quadrático de calibração (RMSEC) de 508 µg.kg-1 para o conjunto de calibração, R2 de 0,95 e raiz quadrada do erro médio quadrático de predição (RMSEP) de 508 µg.kg-1 para o conjunto de validação do teste e relação desempenho/desvio de 4,7. Conclui-se que o NIR-HSI com regressão parcial de mínimos quadrados pode ser um método rápido, eficaz e não destrutivo para determinar o teor de fumonisinas em grãos integrais de milho. Zea L. L animal Porém saúde necessidade NIRHSI NIR HSI (NIR-HSI contaminadas amostras 4 38 (3 20 (2 obtidos préprocessamento pré processamento variação derivada. . derivada) PLS (PLS R (R2 098 0 98 0,9 RMSEC (RMSEC 50 µg.kg1 µgkg1 µgkg µg.kg 1 µg kg µg.kg- 095 95 RMSEP (RMSEP desempenhodesvio desempenho desvio 47 7 4,7 Concluise Conclui se 3 ( 2 (R 09 9 0, 5 kg1 4,

RESUMO: Um experimento foi conduzido para avaliar a produtividade, a composição nutricional e a contaminação por micotoxinas em diferentes híbridos de milho. Essas medidas também foram correlacionadas com o impacto do custo do milho na formulação de ração inicial para frangos de corte. Um total de 150 amostras de 50 híbridos de milho foram obtidas em experimento de campo. As variáveis nutricionais foram preditas via NIRS e as micotoxinas foram analisadas por HPLC-MS/MS. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e os híbridos agrupados pelo teste de Scott-Knott a 5% de significância. Correlação de Pearson foi realizada entre as principais variáveis. A maioria das variáveis foi diferente entre os híbridos de milho (P < 0,05), com exceção de fósforo disponível, grãos avariados e contaminações por DON e ZEA (P > 0,05). A produtividade teve correlação positiva (P < 0,05) com o custo de formulação da ração (r = 0,35) e correlação negativa (P < 0,05) com proteína bruta (-0,42), Tre digestível (dig.) (-0,42) e Met+Cis dig. (-0,42). O custo da formulação de rações apresentou correlação positiva (P < 0,05) com FUM (0,33) e ZEA (0,29), e negativa (P < 0,05) com proteína bruta (-0,74). Diferentes híbridos de milho variam em produtividade, conteúdo nutricional e contaminação por micotoxinas. Foi demonstrado que um aumento no rendimento à campo pode estar relacionado com redução no conteúdo nutricional e na qualidade do milho, resultando em um aumento no custo da formulação de ração. RESUMO corte 15 5 HPLCMS/MS. HPLCMSMS HPLC MS/MS. MS HPLC-MS/MS ScottKnott Scott Knott significância P 0,05, 005 0,05 , 0 05 disponível 0,05. . r 0,35 035 35 0,42, 042 0,42 42 dig (dig. (-0,42 MetCis Met Cis 0,42. 0,33 033 33 (0,33 0,29, 029 0,29 29 (0,29) 0,74. 074 0,74 74 (-0,74) 1 HPLCMS HPLCMS/MS MSMS MS/MS 00 0,0 0,3 03 3 04 0,4 4 (dig (-0,4 (0,3 02 0,2 2 (0,29 07 0,7 7 (-0,74 0, (-0, (0, (0,2 (-0,7 (-0 (0 (- (

ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to assess the crop yield, nutritional composition, and mycotoxin contamination in different corn hybrids. The impact of these variables on the feed formulation cost of starter diets for broilers was also evaluated. A total of 150 samples from 50 corn hybrids was obtained from a field experiment. Nutrients were predicted by NIRS and mycotoxins were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. Data were submitted to analysis of variance and corn hybrids were grouped using Scott-Knott test at 5% significance. Pearson correlation analysis was performed among the main variables. Most of the variables were different among corn hybrids (P < 0.05), with exception of available phosphorus (Av. P), damaged grains, and DON and ZEA contaminations (P > 0.05). Crop yield had a positive correlation (P < 0.05) with feed formulation cost (r = 0.35) and a negative correlation (P < 0.05) with crude protein (-0.42), digestible (dig.) Thr (-0.42), and dig. Met+Cys (-0.42). The feed cost correlated positively (P < 0.05) with FUM (0.33) and ZEA (0.29), and negatively (P < 0.05) with crude protein (-0.74). Different corn hybrids vary in their productivity, nutritional content and mycotoxins contamination. It was demonstrated that an increase in the crop yield might be related to a reduction in corn nutritional content and quality, resulting in an increase in feed formulation cost. ABSTRACT composition evaluated 15 5 HPLCMS/MS. HPLCMSMS HPLC MS/MS. MS HPLC-MS/MS ScottKnott Scott Knott significance P 0.05, 005 0.05 , 0 05 Av. Av (Av P, P) grains 0.05. . r 0.35 035 35 0.42, 042 0.42 42 (-0.42) dig (dig. MetCys Met Cys 0.42. 0.33 033 33 (0.33 0.29, 029 0.29 29 (0.29) 0.74. 074 0.74 74 (-0.74) productivity quality 1 HPLCMS HPLCMS/MS MSMS MS/MS 00 0.0 0.3 03 3 04 0.4 4 (-0.42 (dig (0.3 02 0.2 2 (0.29 07 0.7 7 (-0.74 0. (-0.4 (0. (0.2 (-0.7 (-0. (0 (-0 ( (-

Resumo A administração de doenças de plantas é difícil devido à natureza dos fitopatógenos. O controle biológico é um método seguro para evitar problemas relacionados a doenças fúngicas que afetam a produtividade das culturas e algumas bactérias patogênicas ao homem. Para isso, a atividade antimicrobiana da alga marinha Sargassum muticum metanol e de extratos aquosos foi investigada contra patógenos bacterianos humanos e fitopatógenos fúngicos. Usando metanol a 70%, o pó de algas marinhas foi extraído do ensaio de aditivos alimentares, a ultraestrutura (TEM). Os resultados revelaram inibição significativa do extrato metanólico de S. muticum contra Salmonella typhi (25,66 mm), Escherichia coli (24,33 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (22,33 mm) e Bacillus subtilis (19,66 mm). Alguns fitopatógenos fúngicos inibiram significativamente Fusarium moniliforme (30,33 mm), Pythium ultimum (26,33 mm), Aspergillus flavus (24,36 mm) e Macrophomina phaseolina (22,66 mm). A investigação fitoquímica do extrato de S. muticum mostrou a presença de compostos fenólicos e flavonoides. Os resultados sugeriram que há um nível apreciável de potencial antioxidante na atividade de eliminação de DPPH de S. muticum (79,86%). Estudos ultraestruturais da hifa de Fusarium moniliforme cultivada em meio contendo extrato de S. muticum na concentração de 300 mg/ml mostraram espessamento da parede celular, desintegração do citoplasma, grandes corpos lipídicos e vacúolos. Em conclusão, nosso estudo revelou a atividade antibacteriana do extrato de S. muticum significativamente contra algumas bactérias Gram-positivas, Gram-negativas e atividade antifúngica contra alguns fungos fitopatogênicos e alguns produtores de micotoxinas. Flavonoides e fenólicos desempenham papel importante como antioxidantes e propriedades antimicrobianas. Tal estudo revelou que o extrato metanólico de S. muticum pode ser usado como biocontrole ecologicamente correto para fungos fitopatogênicos e aditivos alimentares para proteger os produtos pecuários.

Abstract Plant disease administration is difficult due to the nature of phytopathogens. Biological control is a safe method to avoid the problems related to fungal diseases affecting crop productivity and some human pathogenic bacteria. For that, the antimicrobial activity of the seaweed Sargassum muticum methanol and water extracts were investigated against human bacterial pathogens and fungal plant pathogens. By using 70 percent methanol, the seaweed powder was extracted, feeding additives assay, ultrastructure (TEM). Results revealed significant inhibition of S. muticum methanol extract against Salmonella typhi (25.66 mm), Escherichia coli (24.33 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (22.33 mm) and Bacillus subtilis. (19.66 mm), some fungal phytopathogens significantly inhibited Fusarium moniliforme (30.33mm), Pythium ultimum (26.33 mm), Aspergillus flavus (24.36mm), and Macrophomina phaseolina (22.66mm). Phytochemical investigation of S. muticum extract showed the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Results suggested that there is an appreciable level of antioxidant potential in S. muticum (79.86%) DPPH scavenging activity. Ultrastructural studies of Fusarium moniliforme hypha grown on a medium containing S. muticum extract at concentration 300mg/ml showed a thickening cell wall, disintegration of cytoplasm, large lipid bodies and vacuoles. In conclusion, our study revealed The antibacterial activity of S. muticum extract significantly against some Gram positive, Gram negative bacteria and antifungal activity against some phytopathogenic and some mycotoxin producer fungi. Flavonoids, phenolic play an important role as antioxidants and antimicrobial properties. Such study revealed that S. muticum methanol extract could be used as ecofriendly biocontrol for phytopathogenic fungi and feeding additives to protect livestock products.

Global aflatoxin contamination of agricultural commodities is of the most concern in food safety and quality. This study investigated the hepatoprotective effect of 80% methanolic leaf extract of Annona senegalensis against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)-induced toxicity in rats. A. senegalensis has shown to inhibit genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 in vitro. The rats were divided into six groups including untreated control, aflatoxin B1 only (negative control); curcumin (positive control; 10 mg/kg); and three groups receiving different doses (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 300 mg/kg) of A. senegalensis extract. The rats received treatment (with the exception of untreated group) for 7 days prior to intoxication with aflatoxin B1. Serum levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatinine were measured. Hepatic tissues were analysed for histological alterations. Administration of A. senegalensis extract demonstrated hepatoprotective effects against aflatoxin B1-induced toxicity in vivo by significantly reducing the level of serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase and regenerating the hepatocytes. No significant changes were observed in the levels of alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatinine for the AFB1 intoxicated group, curcumin+AFB1 and Annona senegalensis leaf extract (ASLE)+AFB1 (100 mg/kg, 200 mg/kg, and 300 mg/kg body weight [b.w.]) treated groups. Annona senegalensis is a good candidate for hepatoprotective agents and thus its use in traditional medicine may at least in part be justified. CONTRIBUTION: The plant extract investigated in this study can be used in animal health to protect the organism from toxicity caused by mycotoxins.

RESUMEN Introducción: La aflatoxina B1 se encuentra entre las micotoxinas más comunes y venenosas producidas por ciertos hongos que dañan a los animales y los cultivos. Las micotoxinas pueden causar una variedad de efectos adversos para la salud y representar una grave amenaza para la salud de los seres humanos. Los límites máximos de residuos de aflatoxina B1en cereales e ingredientes procesados son de 2 ppb y 5 ppb, respectivamente. Objetivos: Evaluar el estado de contaminación por aflatoxina B1 en arroz, maíz y alimentos básicos producidos en la provincia de Ha Giang, en comparación con los niveles máximos permitidos. Métodos: Se analizaron un total de 210 muestras de arroz y maíz para cuantificar el nivel de aflatoxina B1. El análisis de micotoxinas se realizó mediante cromatografía líquida de alta resolución, utilizando un detector de fluorescencia. Resultados: Se encontró que el arroz, los productos de arroz, el maíz y los productos de maíz tenían un contenido medio de aflatoxin B1, de 1,79 ppb, 2,55 ppb, 2,19 ppb y 6,35 ppb, respectivamente. Los resultados también mostraron que el 71,9 % de las muestras estaban contaminadas con micotoxinas y el 14,28 % de las muestras excedieron el límite máximo permitido. Conclusión: La concentración de aflatoxina B1 en el 14,28 % de las muestras está por encima de los límites permisibles por la norma nacional.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Aflatoxins B1 are among the most common poisonous mycotoxins produced by certain fungi that harm animals and crops. Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. The Maximum Residue Limits of aflatoxin B1 in processed cereals and ingredients are 2 parts per billion (ppb) and 5 ppb, respectively. Objectives: To evaluate the status of aflatoxin B1 contamination in rice, corn and staple food produced in Ha Giang province compared with the maximum permitted levels. Methods: A total of 210 rice and maize samples were analyzed to quantify the level of aflatoxin B1. Analysis of mycotoxins was conducted by High Performance Liquid Chromatography using a fluorescence detector. Results: It was found that rice, rice products, maize, and maize products had a mean aflatoxin B1 content of 1.79 ppb, 2.55 ppb, 2.19 ppb, and 6.35 ppb, respectively. The results also showed that 71.9% of samples were contaminated with mycotoxins, and 14.28% of samples exceeded the maximum allowable limit. Conclusion: The concentration of aflatoxin B1 in 14.28% of the samples are over permissible limits by nationwide regulations.

Resumen Las micotoxinas son sustancias producidas por varias especies de mohos que pueden crecer sobre los alimentos en determinadas condiciones de humedad y temperatura y se constituyen en un verdadero riesgo para la salud humana y animal. El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar la presencia de micotoxinas (aflatoxinas) en alimentos primarios y procesados para humanos y animales de granja en Riobamba, Ecuador. Se tomaron doce muestras con cuatro réplicas de alimentos primarios: arroz, pollo, leche cruda, maíz, alfalfa, trigo, y alimentos procesados: salchichas de pollo, leche pasteurizada, pan y concentrados para pollos, vacas y cerdos de los distintos mercados con mayor concentración de oferta de productos, las cuales fueron analizadas a través del método de inmunoabsorción ligado a enzimas ELISA (Veratox® for Aflatoxin Quantitative Test y Veratox® Aflatoxin M1, Neogen) con capacidad para determinar cuantitativamente aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1, G2, M1. Del total de muestras analizadas, el 98 % presentaron contaminación con aflatoxinas que, de acuerdo con el Codex alimentario ecuatoriano, se encuentran en los parámetros permitidos: menos de 10 µg kg-1, para alimentos y piensos y menos de 0,5 µg l-1 para el caso de la leche.

Abstract Mycotoxins are substances produced by several species of molds that can grow on food under certain conditions of humidity and temperature, and constitute a real risk to human and animal health. The objective of the present study was to determine the presence of Mycotoxins (Aflatoxins) in primary and processed foods for humans and farm animals in Riobamba, Ecuador. Twelve samples were taken with 4 replicates of primary foods: rice, chicken, raw milk, corn, alfalfa, and wheat; and, processed foods: chicken sausages, pasteurized milk, bread and concentrates for chickens, cows, and pigs from the different markets with the highest concentration of product offer, which were analyzed through the ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent method (Veratox® for Aflatoxin Quantitative Test and Veratox® Aflatoxin M1, NEOGEN) with the capacity to determine quantitatively aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1. Of the total samples analyzed, 98 % presented contamination by aflatoxins, which according to the Ecuadorian Food Codex are within the allowed permitted parameters of less than 10 µg kg-1, for food and feed, and, less than 0.5 µg l-1 for milk.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to perform a fungal count and detect mycotoxins in feed supplies and balanced feed from pig farms in four districts of Coronel Portillo, Ucayali. Fifty samples were collected (35 of balances feeds [three rearing stages] from 20 farms and 15 of feed supplies from 10 of these farms). The fungal count was performed using the plate count method and the detection of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone) using commercial ELISA kits. Results showed that 50% of farms had at least one sample of unacceptable quality. Likewise, 6/15 (40%) and 5/35 (14.3%) of feed supplies and balanced feed samples, respectively, had unacceptable quality. The starter feed had the highest average fungal count (9.6 x 104 CFU/g). There was an association between quality and type of food, but none between quality and origin. Half of the farms had at least one feed sample with mycotoxins above the Maximum Permissible Level (MPL) and 42.9% (15/35) of the samples had at least one mycotoxin above the MPL. The highest mean for aflatoxin B1 was found in the starter feed (26.2 ppb) and the highest for zearalenone in breeders feed (74.5 ppb).

RESUMEN El objetivo del estudio fue realizar el recuento de hongos y detectar micotoxinas en insumos y alimento balanceado de granjas porcinas de cuatro distritos de Coronel Portillo, Ucayali. Se recolectaron 50 muestras (35 de alimento de tres etapas de crianza de 20 granjas y 15 de insumos de 10 de estos establecimientos). El recuento de hongos se realizó mediante el método de conteo en placa y la detección de micotoxinas (aflatoxina B1, ocratoxina A y zearalenona) mediante kits comerciales de ELISA. El 50% de establecimientos tuvo al menos una muestra de calidad inaceptable. Asimismo, 6/15 (40%) y 5/35 (14.3%) de las muestras de insumos y alimento, respectivamente, tuvieron calidad inaceptable. El alimento de inicio presentó el mayor promedio en el recuento de hongos (9.6 x 104 UFC/g). Hubo asociación entre calidad y tipo de alimento, pero ninguna entre calidad y procedencia. La mitad de las granjas tuvo al menos una muestra de alimento con micotoxinas por encima al Límite Máximo Permisible (LMP) y el 42.9% (15/35) de las muestras tuvo al menos una micotoxina por encima a los LMP. El promedio más alto de aflatoxina B1 se encontró en el alimento de inicio (26.2 ppb) y el más alto de zearalenona en alimento de reproductores (74.5 ppb).

ABSTRACT Fusarium head blight, also known as fusariosis, is caused by a fungus called Fusarium graminearum that produces the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). This toxin causes problems to human and animal health. Ammonia gas has been shown to be effective in deactivating mycotoxins. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effectiveness of ammonia gas in the deactivation of DON in wheat grains, the effect of this treatment on its protein composition and the toxicity in rats fed with ammoniated wheat grains. Wheat samples were exposed to ammonia gas at concentrations of 0% (Control), 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%. It was observed that ammonia gas was effective in deactivating DON at concentrations of 1% and 1.5%. There was no difference in crude protein observed in the bromatological analysis of treated wheat grains in relation to the control. Regarding the toxicity of wheat grains treated with ammonia in the feeding of Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus), no histopathological alterations were observed in the liver, kidneys, intestine and in the hematological profile. The results of this study demonstrated that the treatment of wheat with ammonia gas can contribute to the deactivation of DON without compromising its protein composition and animal health. blight fusariosis DON. . (DON) health mycotoxins 0 Control, Control , (Control) 05 5 0.5% 1 15 1.5% control Rattus norvegicus, norvegicus norvegicus) liver kidneys profile (DON (Control 0.5 1.5 0. 1.

RESUMO A giberela, também conhecida como fusariose, é causada por um fungo chamado Fusarium graminearum, que produz a micotoxina desoxinivalenol (DON). Essa toxina gera problemas à saúde humana e animal. O gás amônia demonstrou ser eficaz na desativação das micotoxinas. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar a eficácia do gás amônia na desativação do DON em grãos de trigo contaminados naturalmente, o efeito desse tratamento na sua composição proteica e a toxicidade em ratos alimentados com os grãos de trigo amonizados. Amostras de trigo foram expostas ao gás amônia nas concentrações de 0% (controle), 0,5%, 1% e 1,5%. Observou-se que o gás amônia foi eficaz na desativação do DON na concentração de 1% e 1,5%. Não houve diferença na proteína bruta observada na análise bromatológica dos grãos de trigo tratados em relação ao controle. Quanto à toxicidade dos grãos de trigo tratados com amônia fornecidos aos ratos Wistar (Rattus norvegicus), não foram observadas alterações histopatológicas do fígado, dos rins e do intestino e no perfil hematológico. Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que o tratamento de trigo com gás amônia pode contribuir na desativação do DON sem comprometer sua composição proteíca e a saúde dos animais. giberela fusariose graminearum DON. . (DON) animal micotoxinas naturalmente amonizados 0 controle, controle , (controle) 05 5 0,5% 1 15 1,5% Observouse Observou se Rattus norvegicus, norvegicus norvegicus) fígado hematológico animais (DON (controle 0,5 1,5 0, 1,

Abstract Consumption of wild mushrooms has increased in recent years; however, not all of them are edible and there is no precise information on those that may cause poisoning. Therefore, studies to obtain data about their toxicity are needed. For this purpose, we used the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana, a crustacean employed in toxicity tests and with wide application in the toxin detection, including mycotoxins. Mushrooms were collected in the state of Jalisco, Mexico, with which aqueous extracts were prepared. Dilutions of the stock solution of each extract were made to final concentrations of 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 µg/mL. Potassium dichromate (PD) was used as positive control and artificial seawater as negative control. The median lethal dose (LD50) of extracts on nauplii of A. franciscana was calculated. The aqueous extracts obtained from Amanita amerivirosa, A. muscaria, Chlorophyllum molybdites, and Leucopaxillus amarus showed a LD50 < 70 µg/mL, similar to PD (LD50 = 37 µg/mL). This is the first indication of the probable toxicity of Leucopaxillus amarus in humans. Cantharellus cibarius and Scleroderma texense caused the lower toxicity to the nauplii. The brine shrimp bioassay was effective in evaluating the toxicity of Basidiomycota. Scleroderma texense has been reported to be toxic, but it was not for this crustacean nauplii, and probably not to humans either, as recent literature has reported. years however poisoning Therefore needed purpose detection mycotoxins Jalisco Mexico prepared 50 100 250 500 µgmL µg mL µg/mL (PD LD A calculated amerivirosa muscaria molybdites LD5 7 (LD5 3 . µg/mL) Basidiomycota toxic either 5 10 25 (LD 1 2

Resumo O consumo de cogumelos silvestres aumentou nos últimos anos; porém, nem todas as variedades são comestíveis e não há informações precisas sobre aquelas que podem causar intoxicação. Portanto, estudos para obter dados sobre sua toxicidade são necessários. Para tanto, utilizou-se o artêmia Artemia franciscana, crustáceo utilizado em testes de toxicidade e com ampla aplicação na detecção de toxinas, incluindo micotoxinas. Cogumelos foram coletados no estado de Jalisco, México, com os quais foram preparados extratos aquosos. As diluições da solução estoque de cada extrato foram feitas para as concentrações finais de 50, 100, 250, 500 e 1000 µg/mL. Dicromato de potássio (PD) foi usado como controle positivo e água do mar artificial como controle negativo. Calculou-se a dose letal mediana (DL50) dos extratos sobre os náuplios de A. franciscana. Os extratos aquosos obtidos de Amanita amerivirosa, A. muscaria, Chlorophyllum molybdites e Leucopaxillus amarus apresentaram DL50 < 70 µg/mL, semelhante ao DP (LD50 = 37 µg/mL). Esta é a primeira indicação da provável toxicidade de L.amarus em humanos. Cantharellus cibarius e Scleroderma texense causaram a menor toxicidade aos náuplios. O bioensaio de artêmia foi eficaz na avaliação da toxicidade de Basidiomycota. Scleroderma texense foi relatado como tóxico, mas não foi para este náuplio de crustáceo e provavelmente também não para os humanos, como a literatura recente relatou. anos porém intoxicação Portanto necessários tanto utilizouse utilizou se franciscana toxinas micotoxinas Jalisco México 50 100 250 µgmL µg mL µg/mL PD (PD negativo Calculouse Calculou DL (DL50 A amerivirosa muscaria DL5 7 LD50 LD (LD5 3 . µg/mL) Lamarus L humanos Basidiomycota tóxico relatou 5 10 25 (DL5 LD5 (LD 1 2 (DL

Abstract Mycotoxins exists in foods such as grains, vegetables, fruits, milk, nuts, and meat, which can cause foodborne illnesses seriously harmful to human health. However, people have not paid enough attention to foodborne mycotoxin poisoning. This paper reviews the food in some common mycotoxin cause foodborne disease, the potential danger of mycotoxin contaminated food to human body and other issues related to food science were revealed from the clinical point of view, also concerned with the immunomodulatory effects of mycotoxin and the antitumor properties of patulin, the applicable conditions of several risk assessment models are briefly compared the emergency management measures of food safety problems caused by mycotoxin were also discussed from the perspective of prevention. grains vegetables fruits milk nuts meat health However poisoning disease view patulin prevention