Abstract: The notion of natura took on a transcendental meaning in medieval times. Essentially, human beings did not belong to a natural order, but rather a supernatural one. Hence, the important thing was not the search for an orientation toward nature above all, but the subsequent adaptation to the supernatural. Mortals experienced freedom in the realm of nature, but natura did not guarantee them the measure of morality. Human nature thus received its ultimate identification beyond its natural being; that is, on the transcendental plane. Judeo-Christianity assigned the main role of creation to humanity and the more it participated in the divine likeness, the less it differed from the Creator, thus taking the path to redemption. This article will address the relationship between medieval conceptions of nature and the belief that human beings were the only species created “in the image and likeness of God.” Having discussed this link, it will examine from a philosophical perspective how this belief has resulted in what I have called “theo-narcissism” before indicating possible ways to overcome this problem.

Resumen: En la Época Medieval la noción de natura adquirió un sentido trascendente. El ser humano, en esencia, no pertenecía a un orden natural, sino a uno sobrenatural; de ahí que lo relevante no fuese ante todo la búsqueda de la orientación hacia la naturaleza, sino la adecuación ulterior a lo sobrenatural. En el ámbito de la naturaleza los mortales experimentaban libertad, pero la natura no les garantizaba la medida de la moralidad. La naturaleza humana recibió así su identificación última fuera de su ser natural, es decir, en el plano trascendente. El judeocristianismo le atribuyó al ser humano el rol principal de la creación y mientras más partícipe era de la semejanza divina menos se diferenciaba del Creador, encaminándose de esta manera a la redención. En este artículo se abordará la relación entre las concepciones medievales de la naturaleza y la creencia de que el ser humano fue la única especie creada ‘a imagen y semejanza de Dios’. Develado este vínculo, se sondeará, desde una perspectiva filosófica, cómo ha redundado esta creencia en lo que he denominado “teonarcisismo” con el objetivo de señalar, finalmente, posibles formas de superación de esta problemática.

Abstract Since 2020, in Colombia it is required that students pursuing bachelor’s degrees in foreign languages obtain a level of sufficiency (C1), which affirms the validity of the knowledge of the language and culture as a degree requirement (MEN, 2017). Language policy posits that language tests measure students’ language skills as well as (inter)cultural notions and attitudes. However, from a socio-cognitive lens, the conception of the tests does not say much about the cognitive and social processes that become crucial for taking the exams. Therefore, it seems relevant to review the ontology of institutional language exams and to identify which factors give coherence and validity to the passing of such tests as a degree requirement. To achieve this, a phenomenological description is proposed. The hypothesis of this article is as follows: language tests, instead of measuring the linguistic and (inter)cultural skills of students, are actually concerned with, above all, their social and cognitive systems, especially morality. As a result, there is a strong case to be made for profound and rapid changes to the convention of employing standardized tests as a degree requirement.

Resumen Desde el 2020, en Colombia es requerido que los estudiantes de licenciaturas en lenguas (modernas o extranjeras) obtengan un nivel de suficiencia (C1), el cual valida el conocimiento de la lengua y la cultura como requisito de grado (Ministerio de Educación Nacional (MEN), 2017). La política lingüística postula que los exámenes de lengua midan las habilidades lingüísticas, así como las nociones y actitudes (inter)culturales de los estudiantes. Sin embargo, desde un lente sociocognitivo, la concepción de los exámenes no dice mucho sobre los procesos cognitivos y sociales que se tornan cruciales para la concepción misma de las pruebas. Por lo tanto, parece relevante revisar la ontología de los exámenes institucionales de lengua y poder identificar qué aspecto da coherencia y validez a la necesidad de obtener dichos exámenes como requisito de grado. Para lograr esto, se propone una descripción fenomenológica, postulando la siguiente hipótesis: los exámenes de lengua en lugar de medir las habilidades lingüísticas e (inter)culturales de los estudiantes, circundan, sobre todo, sus sistemas sociales y cognitivos, en especial, la moral. Como resultado, se podría postular que la concepción de los exámenes como requisito de grado requiere de cambios profundos a corto plazo.

Abstract: The study of Ibn Taymiyyah’s ideas on haram and halal in Islam remains relevant for understanding Islamic jurisprudence, ethics, cultural identity and contemporary issues. The purpose of the paper is to analyze Ibn Taymiyyah’s works and identify his most important concepts for the Muslim community. The methods of analyzing fatwas, written by Ibn Taymiyyah, and methods of interpreting and comparing the concepts of forbidden and permitted in Islam were used to achieve the purpose of the study. The main conclusion of the study is that Ibn Taymiyyah was known for his research in Islamic law, theology and morality. The figure had conservative views, and due to his own reformist ideas, he was repeatedly convicted. Despite this, he criticized traditional teachings about Islam and supported the need to reform some aspects of Islamic practice. Ibn Taymiyyah attached great importance to the examination of Prophet Muhammad’s Quran and Sunnah to understand what is forbidden and allowed in various areas of Muslim life. He stressed the importance of a healthy diet, the need to follow Islamic principles in financial matters and the preservation of dignity and respectful behavior in all aspects of life. Abstract Taymiyyahs s jurisprudence ethics issues community fatwas law morality views convicted this practice Muhammads Muhammad life diet

Resumo: O estudo das ideias de Ibn Taymiyyah sobre o haram e o halal, no Islã, continua a ser relevante para a compreensão da jurisprudência islâmica, da ética, da identidade cultural e das questões contemporâneas. O objetivo do artigo é analisar as obras de Ibn Taymiyyah e identificar seus conceitos mais importantes para a comunidade muçulmana. Os métodos de análise das fatwas escritas por Ibn Taymiyyah e os métodos de interpretação e comparação dos conceitos de proibido e permitido, no Islã, foram usados para atingir o objetivo do estudo. A principal conclusão da pesquisa é que Ibn Taymiyyah era conhecido por suas pesquisas em lei islâmica, teologia e moralidade. Ele tinha visões conservadoras e, devido às suas próprias ideias reformistas, foi repetidamente condenado. Apesar disso, ele criticou os ensinamentos tradicionais sobre o Islã e apoiou a necessidade de reformar alguns aspectos da prática islâmica. Ibn Taymiyyah atribuiu grande importância ao exame do Alcorão e da Sunnah do Profeta Muhammad, a fim de entender o que é proibido e permitido, em várias áreas da vida muçulmana. Ele enfatizou a importância de uma dieta saudável, a necessidade de seguir os princípios islâmicos em questões financeiras e a preservação da dignidade e do comportamento respeitoso, em todos os aspectos da vida. Resumo halal islâmica ética contemporâneas muçulmana permitido moralidade reformistas condenado disso Muhammad saudável respeitoso

Abstract The thought of the eternal return of the same, although at the heart of Nietzsche's late philosophy, is not directly addressed in the Genealogy of Morality. This does not mean that it is absent from this work, nor could it be since the philosopher saw in the cosmological possibility of returning a new measure of value for an attempt to overcome nihilism. Carrying out the genealogical examination without considering the thought of the eternal return is, therefore, not paying attention to the fact that such an examination is not reduced to the diagnosis and criticism of morality but is carried out with a view to overcoming it. The question that arises from the beginning is, therefore, twofold: in what way is the thought of the eternal return present in the work? And why didn't Nietzsche explore it conceptually? The answer lies in the understanding of "hope" in the emergence of the "man of the future" - mentioned at the end of the Second Treatise on the Genealogy of Morality. same Nietzsches s philosophy Morality work nihilism therefore twofold didnt didn t conceptually hope "hope man future

Resumo O pensamento do eterno retorno do mesmo, embora esteja no cerne da filosofia tardia de Nietzsche, não é abordado diretamente na Genealogia da moral. Isso não significa que ele esteja ausente desta obra, e nem o poderia, pois o filósofo via na possibilidade cosmológica do retorno a nova medida de valor para uma tentativa de superação do niilismo. Realizar o exame genealógico sem levar em conta o pensamento do eterno retorno é, por conseguinte, não prestar atenção ao fato de que tal exame não se reduz ao diagnóstico e à crítica da moralidade, mas é realizado em vistas de sua superação. A questão que se coloca desde o início é, portanto, dupla: de que modo o pensamento do eterno retorno está presente na obra? E por que Nietzsche não o explorou conceitualmente? A resposta encontra-se na compreensão da “esperança” no surgimento do “homem do futuro” - mencionado no final do Segundo Tratado da Genealogia da moral. mesmo moral obra poderia niilismo conseguinte moralidade portanto dupla conceitualmente encontrase encontra esperança “esperança homem futuro

Resumo Este artigo apresenta uma análise crítica da obra de Tristram Engelhardt, com foco no princípio da permissão. Argumenta-se que, em contextos de intensas desigualdades sociais e negação de direitos, a aplicação da ética de procedimentos baseada apenas no princípio da permissão pode resultar na vulnerabilidade moral de indivíduos e grupos que não compartilham de determinada moralidade. Isso pode levá-los a serem expostos a diferentes formas de negação de direitos, violência, exploração, exclusão e estigmatização. Diante dessa realidade, destaca-se a importância de fortalecer uma bioética comprometida com a defesa da dignidade, da diversidade, dos direitos humanos e da justiça social. Engelhardt Argumentase Argumenta se moralidade leválos levá los violência exploração estigmatização realidade destacase destaca dignidade diversidade social

Abstract This article presents a critical analysis of Tristram Engelhardt’s work, focusing on the principle of permission. It is argued that, in a context of intense social inequalities and denial of rights, the application of procedural ethics based solely on the principle of permission can result in the moral vulnerability of individuals and groups who do not share a certain morality. This can expose them to different forms of denial of rights, violence, exploitation, exclusion, and stigmatization. Given this reality, the importance of strengthening a bioethics committed to defending dignity, diversity, human rights, and social justice is highlighted. Engelhardts Engelhardt s work that rights morality violence exploitation exclusion stigmatization reality dignity diversity highlighted

Resumen Este artículo presenta un análisis crítico de la obra de Tristram Engelhardt, centrándose en el principio de permiso. Se arguye que, en un contexto de intensas desigualdades sociales y negación de derechos, la aplicación de la ética de procedimientos basada solo en el principio de permiso puede generar vulnerabilidad moral en los individuos y grupos que no comparten cierta moralidad. Esto puede llevarlos a verse expuestos a diferentes formas de negación de derechos, violencia, explotación, exclusión y estigmatización. Ante esta realidad, se destaca la importancia de fortalecer una bioética comprometida con la defensa de la dignidad, la diversidad, los derechos humanos y la justicia social. Engelhardt moralidad violencia explotación estigmatización realidad dignidad diversidad social

ABSTRACT This paper seeks to explain, through a police written media such as the Revista de los Carabineros de Chile (RCCh) in a given historical period (1946-1973), the different textual and visual representations that were elaborated concerning individuals and groups, described as abnormal, based on their virtual dangerousness for the authority, citizenship, and public morality. Employing a content analysis of the information and articles that appeared there, we examine the identities attributed to delinquents, criminals, alcoholics, and drug addicts; elaborated from the identification of behaviors and appearances recognizable by the community and from the survey of the cultural assumptions of the time. These constructions would show an adaptive character to changing ideological scenarios and moral concerns, being able to generate enunciative, discursive, and opinionated languages, in addition to defining, characterizing, and reinforcing, by opposition, the institutional identity of the Chilean uniformed police. explain RCCh (RCCh 19461973, 19461973 1946 1973 , (1946-1973) groups abnormal authority citizenship morality there delinquents criminals alcoholics addicts time concerns enunciative discursive languages defining characterizing reinforcing opposition 1946197 194 197 (1946-1973 194619 19 (1946-197 19461 1 (1946-19 (1946-1 (1946- (1946 (194 (19 (1 (

RESUMEN Este trabajo busca explicar, a través de un medio escrito policial como es la Revista de los Carabineros de Chile (RCCh) en un período histórico determinado (1946-1973), las distintas representaciones textuales y visuales que se elaboraron respecto de personas y grupos, adjetivados como anormales, a partir de su virtual peligrosidad para la autoridad, la ciudadanía y la moralidad pública. Mediante un análisis de contenido de las informaciones y artículos allí aparecidos, se examinan las identidades atribuidas a delincuentes, criminales, alcohólicos y toxicómanos, elaboradas a partir de la identificación de conductas y apariencias reconocibles por la colectividad y del relevamiento de los supuestos culturales de época. Dichas construcciones mostrarían un carácter adaptativo a escenarios ideológicos y preocupaciones morales cambiantes, siendo capaces de generar lenguajes enunciativos, discursivos y opinantes, además de definir, caracterizar y reforzar, por oposición, la identidad institucional de la policía uniformada chilena. explicar RCCh (RCCh 19461973, 19461973 1946 1973 , (1946-1973) grupos anormales autoridad pública aparecidos delincuentes criminales toxicómanos época cambiantes enunciativos opinantes definir reforzar oposición chilena 1946197 194 197 (1946-1973 194619 19 (1946-197 19461 1 (1946-19 (1946-1 (1946- (1946 (194 (19 (1 (

Abstract This study aims to comprehensively analyze the Weberian concept of legitimacy, focusing on its implications for the empirical strength and stability of a social order. It begins by examining the incentives that ensure the legitimacy of an order, with particular emphasis on the relationship between law and morality. Furthermore, it explores the various theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches to legitimacy found in the literature, highlighting their relevance to the development of a more robust framework for understanding this complex phenomenon. Drawing from diverse sources and scholarly debates, the study investigates the role of value-oriented action (wertrationales Handeln) in shaping the nature and effectiveness of legitimate social orders. It also delves into the factors that contribute to the internal reasons for subjects to believe in a legitimate order. By synthesizing insights from various disciplines and intellectual traditions, this study aims to contribute to a more nuanced and holistic understanding of legitimacy. It also seeks to provide a solid foundation for future research and policy-making, emphasizing the importance of considering both empirical and normative aspects of legitimacy when examining the factors that contribute to the stability and resilience of social orders. order morality Furthermore literature phenomenon debates valueoriented value oriented wertrationales Handeln orders traditions policymaking, policymaking policy making, making policy-making

Resumo Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar de forma abrangente o conceito weberiano de legitimidade, focando em suas implicações para a força empírica e estabilidade de uma ordem social. Inicia-se examinando os incentivos que garantem a legitimidade de uma ordem, com ênfase especial na relação entre lei e moralidade. Além disso, exploram-se as diversas perspectivas teóricas e abordagens metodológicas sobre legitimidade encontradas na literatura, destacando sua relevância para o desenvolvimento de uma estrutura mais robusta para a compreensão deste fenômeno complexo. A partir de diversas fontes e debates acadêmicos, o estudo investiga o papel da ação orientada a valores (wertrationales Handeln) na formação da natureza e eficácia das ordens sociais legítimas. Também se aprofunda nos fatores que contribuem para as razões internas dos sujeitos acreditarem em uma ordem legítima. Ao sintetizar percepções de várias disciplinas e tradições intelectuais, este estudo visa contribuir para uma compreensão mais matizada e holística da legitimidade. Busca-se também fornecer uma base sólida para futuras pesquisas e formulação de políticas, enfatizando a importância de se considerar os aspectos empíricos e normativos da legitimidade ao examinar os fatores que contribuem para a estabilidade e resiliência das ordens sociais. social Iniciase Inicia moralidade disso exploramse exploram literatura complexo acadêmicos wertrationales Handeln legítimas legítima intelectuais Buscase Busca políticas

The background of this research is the status and significance of an ethics of care of the self in the history of morality. I followed the following methodology: I attempted to come to nuanced, critical understanding of the Foucault's conceptualisation of morality in Volumes II and III of The History of Sexuality. In the 'Ancients', Foucault uncovered an 'ethics-oriented' as opposed to a 'code-oriented' morality in which the emphasis shifted to how an individual was supposed to constitute himself as an ethical subject of his own action without denying the importance of either the moral code or the actual behaviour of people. The main question was whether care of the self-sufficiently regulated an individual's conduct towards others to prevent the self from lapsing into narcissism, substituting a generous responsiveness towards the other for a means-end rationale. I put this line of critique to test by confronting Foucault's care of the self with Levinas's primordial responsibility towards the other and put forward a case for the indispensability of aesthetics for ethics. In conclusion, I defended the claim that care of the self does indeed foster other responsiveness. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: Foucault's ethics, understood as an 'aesthetics of existence' has profound intradisciplinary and interdisciplinary implications, as it challenges traditional ethical normative ethical theories and engages with various fields of philosophy, social sciences and humanities. Interdisciplinary fields greatly influenced by Foucault's ethics include: psychology, literary, cultural, gender and sexuality studies, medical ethics, anthropology and history, among others

Over the course of its history Catholicism has generated several different conceptions of morality. The early medieval church conceived morality primarily in terms of caritas and other virtues, the modern church generated a legalistic conception of morality, and the post-Vatican II church proposes a relational conception of morality. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: The essence of morality concerns natural virtues and natural moral law, which all people of goodwill can grasp, appreciate, and act upon. The distinctive conception of morality is identified with our ultimate end, the beatific vision, the theological virtues, and the ethics of discipleship centred on caritas

This article dealt with the irony that confronts any investigation into the conceptualisation of morality in Judaism: much of contemporary scholarship promotes the Strong Dependence Theory where God is considered the prime source of morality − yet an empirical analysis of classical rabbinic literature indicates a leaning more towards the Weak Dependence Theory which considers human beings the source for morality. Somehow, scholarship seems to overlook this textual evidence. On the other hand, that same contemporary scholarship has no problem in accepting absolute and complete human autonomy in the area of Jewish religious law or Halacha. This study questioned why humans are comfortably accepted as the primary determinants of religious law but not of morality - and argued for a return to the original Weak Dependence Theory to maintain moral efficacy. It included an examination of an extreme historical test case for rabbinic morality concerning how the rabbinic world dealt internally with the moral implications of major rabbis who had fled the Holocaust. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: While this literature study was conducted from an orthodox rabbinic perspective, it adopted a descriptive and evaluative methodology based on academic, rabbinic and historical sources

Resumen: Este artículo parte de la noción de moral de Joan-Carles Mèlich para leer la novela Cara de pan como texto que trata de romper con la lógica funcional de la moral. La obra de Mesa expone una serie de cuestiones que apuntan a la problematización de ciertos códigos morales y sociales, desafiando la rigidez de los discursos oficiales según los cuales el mundo es el que es y es el mejor de todos los posibles. Mèlich defiende la idea de que nacemos en un mundo ya codificado, ordenado y (pre)establecido por la moral y sus marcos. Sin embargo, la moral no es ahistórica; es una construcción elaborada para estructurar y dar significado al mundo y, como tal, varía en función del sistema hegemónico. Las aportaciones de Mèlich, que pongo en relación con conceptos de Foucault, Butler o Esposito, me permiten establecer unas coordenadas teóricas desde las que desmenuzar la configuración de la moral y algunas de sus categorías y mecanismos.

Abstract: This paper starts from the notion of morality developed by Joan-Carles Mèlich to propose an interpretation of Sara Mesa’s novel Cara de pan as a novel that tries to break with the functional logic of morality. Mesa's work exposes a series of questions that point to the problematization of certain moral and social codes, challenging the official discourses according to which the world is what it is, and is the best of all possible. Mèlich's approach is based on the idea that we are born into a world that is already codified, ordered and (pre)established by morality and its frameworks. However, morality is not ahistorical; it is a construction elaborated to structure and give meaning to the world and, as such, it varies according to the hegemonic system. Mèlich's contributions, which I will relate to certain concepts of Foucault, Butler or Esposito, allow me to break down the configuration of morality and, with it, some of its categories and mechanisms.

Abstract: This work aims to characterize religious and secular moralities in the West from a critical-diachronic point of view, seeking to identify spaces that cover moral relativism in solving complex bioethics issues. Concerns such as the destination of surplus embryos, for instance, usually raise polarized positionings without consensual solutions. With the presuppositions introduced on western culture through several events, mainly the principle of laicity, the view of morality widened. This work is reflexive, meta-ethical, with an interdisciplinary approach. It is a national and international literature review regarding the main points on religious and secular morality. We concluded that the present moral overview certainly includes moral relativism based on essential morality, one which can be represented by moral strangers and moral friends.

Resumen: Este trabajo pretende caracterizar las moralidades religiosa y laica en Occidente desde un punto de vista crítico--diacrónico, buscando identificar espacios que abarquen el relativismo moral en la resolución de cuestiones complejas de bioética. Preocupaciones como el destino de los embriones sobrantes, por ejemplo, suelen suscitar posiciones polarizadas, sin soluciones consensuadas. Con los presupuestos introducidos en la cultura occidental a través de diversos acontecimientos, principalmente el principio de laicidad, se amplió la visión de la moral. Este trabajo es reflexivo, meta-ético, con abordaje interdisciplinario. Se trata de una revisión bibliográfica nacional e internacional sobre los principales puntos de la moral religiosa y laica. Concluimos que el panorama moral actual ciertamente incluye el relativismo moral basado en la moralidad esencial, que puede ser representada por extraños morales y amigos morales.

Resumo: Esse trabalha objetiva caracterizar moralidades religiosas e secular no Ocidente desde um ponto de vista crítico--diacrônico, buscando identificar espaços que cubram o relativismo moral ao solucionar temas bioéticos complexos. Preocupações tais como a destinação de embriões excedentes, por exemplo, habitualmente levantam posicionamentos polarizados sem soluções consensuais. Com os pressupostos introduzidos na cultura ocidental através de diversos acontecimentos, principalmente o princípio da laicidade, a visão da moralidade foi ampliada. Esse trabalho é reflexivo, meta-ético, com uma abordagem interdisciplinar. É uma revisão da literatura nacional e internacional a respeito dos pontos principais sobre a moralidade religiosa e secular. Nós concluímos que a atual visão geral da moral certamente inclui o relativismo moral baseado na moralidade essencial, que pode ser representada por estranhos morais e amigos morais.

Abstract: The objective of the present study is to point out tensions of the theoretical/practical universe that Bioethics is facing in Brazil, in the search for a praxis for the destination of surplus embryos. We consider that Bioethics analyzes the implications of such practices in society and in relationships between individuals. Brief data from other countries were presented to compare the Brazilian situation progressively from the conceptual point of view and the adoption of measures. The research is a scoping review on the main points that have been hindering the progress of discussions on the subject and consequently the respective solution. The legal status of the embryo was described from several perspectives and theories, with the resulting proposals for the destination of surplus embryos in their positive and negative aspects. The tensions of Bioethics were presented in the context of post-modernity and the consequent social and moral plurality, together with the difficulties of identifying a secular bioethical morality. In the end, we conclude the possibility of proclaiming a consensus on the destination of surplus embryos based on secular morality, supported by the figure of the “moral strangers”.

Resumen: El objetivo del presente estudio es señalar las tensiones del universo teórico/práctico que la bioética enfrenta en Brasil, en la búsqueda de una praxis para el destino de los embriones sobrantes. Consideramos que la bioética analiza las implicaciones de tales prácticas en la sociedad y en las relaciones entre los individuos. Se presentaron breves datos de otros países para comparar progresivamente la situación brasileña desde el punto de vista conceptual y de la adopción de medidas. La investigación es una revisión del alcance de los principales puntos que han obstaculizado el avance de las discusiones sobre el tema y, en consecuencia, la respectiva solución. Se describió el estatuto jurídico del embrión desde diversas perspectivas y teorías, con las consiguientes propuestas para el destino de los embriones sobrantes en sus aspectos positivos y negativos. Se presentaron las tensiones de la bioética en el contexto de la posmodernidad y la consecuente pluralidad social y moral, junto con las dificultades de identificar una moral bioética laica. Al final, se concluye la posibilidad de proclamar un consenso sobre el destino de los embriones sobrantes basado en una moral laica, apoyada en la figura de los “extraños morales”.

Resumo: O objetivo do presente estudo é destacar as tensões do universo teórico/prático que a Bioética está enfrentando no Brasil, na busca de uma praxis para a destinação de embriões excedentes. Nós consideramos que a Bioética analisa as implicações de tais práticas na sociedade e nas relações entre indivíduos. Dados resumidos de outros países são apresentados para comparar a situação brasileira progressivamente de um ponto de vista conceitual para a adoção de medidas. A pesquisa é uma revisão de escopo sobre os pontos principais que vem atrapalhando o andamento das discussões sobre o assunto e consequentemente a solução respectiva. O status legal do embrião foi descrito a partir de diversas perspectivas e teorias, com as propostas resultantes para a destinação dos embriões excedentes em seus aspectos positivos e negativos. As tensões da Bioética foram apresentadas no contexto da pós-modernidade e a consequente pluralidade social e moral, juntamente com as dificuldades de identificar uma moralidade bioética secular. Ao final, nós concluímos pela possibilidade de proclamar um consenso sobre a destinação de embriões excedentes baseado na moralidade secular, apoiado pela figura dos “estranhos morais”.

ABSTRACT In this paper I attempt to show how an important traditional line of interpretation of Kantian philosophy went astray by the fact that Kant works in its practical philosophy with two distinct and apparently conflicting conceptions of the freedom of human will, namely, freedom as noumenal causality and freedom as the power of choice between alternative possibilities. Firstly, I argue that no conception of freedom in Kant`s philosophy can possibly conflict with that asserted in his most foundational works on practical philosophy, which defines freedom as the actual exercise of moral rationality. I next endeavor to show, by means of both textual and conceptual arguments, the inconsistency of the dominant adoption of a wrong version of the second alternative, namely that of freedom of choice as a supposed free power of choosing for or against morality. Finally, I defend that the only consistent way of conceiving Kant’s freedom of choice in accordance with his freedom as the actual exercise of morality reveals a real conceptual difficulty in Kant`s practical philosophy, namely, the problem of the accountability of immoral decisions. The guiding-thread of this exposition is an interpretation of Karl Ameriks’s article of 2002: “Pure Reason of Itself Alone Suffices to Determine the Will”. will possibilities Firstly Kants s rationality arguments Finally decisions guidingthread guiding thread Amerikss Ameriks 2002 Pure Will. Will . Will” 200 20 2

RESUMO Neste artigo, analiso o modo como uma importante tradição interpretativa do kantismo se deixou desencaminhar pelo fato de Kant trabalhar, em sua filosofia prática, com duas acepções distintas e aparentemente conflitantes da liberdade da vontade humana em sentido positivo: como causalidade numênica e como poder de escolha entre possibilidades alternativas. Em primeiro lugar, defendo que nenhuma acepção de liberdade na filosofia kantiana pode ser conflitante com aquela que, afirmada nas mais importantes obras fundacionais do filósofo, a define como o efetivo (e não meramente potencial) exercício da racionalidade moral. Em seguida, procuro mostrar, por argumentos tanto textuais quanto conceituais, a impertinência da adesão predominante a uma versão equivocada da segunda delas: a liberdade de escolha como o poder de escolher a favor ou contra a moralidade. Finalmente, sustento que a única maneira consistente de se entender a liberdade de escolha em consonância com a liberdade como efetivo exercício da moralidade implica uma real dificuldade conceitual no kantismo, que é o problema da imputabilidade das decisões imorais. O fio condutor desta exposição é uma interpretação das passagens mais importantes do artigo de Karl Ameriks de 2002 intitulado “Pure Reason of Itself Alone Suffices to Determine the Will”. trabalhar prática positivo alternativas lugar filósofo potencial moral seguida mostrar conceituais delas Finalmente imorais 200 Pure Will. Will . Will” 20 2

The origin of humans has been a subject of intense debate for many centuries. The two main approaches to this subject are materialistic and metaphysical. The materialist view suggests that humans evolved from non-human primates through the process of natural selection, while the metaphysical view suggests that humans were created by a divine entity or a supernatural force. According to materialists, their view is based on the scientific theory of evolution, which suggests that all living organisms, including humans, descend from a common ancestor. According to this theory, the process of natural selection drives the development of species over time and those individuals, with traits best suited to their environment, are more likely to survive and reproduce. Recent studies have provided convincing evidence for the descent with modification of humans from non-human primates, including genetic similarities, fossil evidence and anatomical comparisons. In contrast, the metaphysical view states that humans were created by a divine entity or a supernatural force. This view is often associated with religious beliefs and (according to its opponents) is not based on empirical evidence. For the origin of life there is a clear twofold requirement: firstly, a blueprint (plan) that determines how the organism will function (such as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA)) and secondly a mechanism with a metabolic system to interpret the blueprint and functionally organise the proteins as described by the DNA or RNA. This is a classic "chicken-egg" situation, because for life to arise, a blueprint is needed according to which the first organism will be produced, while at the same time an organism is needed to produce the first blueprint. All living matter (biomolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins and lipids) consist of the same macro-nutrients, namely, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphate, and sulphur, of which carbon and water are the most essential. These shared building materials are signs of a common origin, which is confirmed in genetics by aspects such as shared cell design, genetic code, protein systems, as well as DNA, mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid), and protein functions. The interconnectedness is especially clear where variations occur, such as changes through mutations which accumulate in the genome, especially in pseudogenes, where shared mutations then indicate shared ancestry; where retroviruses leave a copy (deactivated so-called "junk" genes) in the DNA of infected organisms, from which it is transmitted to the offspring to indicate relationships; and the sharing of parallel genes by some metazoa that indicate relationships. From a total of 6.1 billion prokaryotic protein-coding genes, 355 protein clusters have been identified that are shared by all prokaryotes. According to this, LUCA (last universal common ancestor) could successfully inhabit anaerobic hydrothermal vents on the sea floor in a H2, CO2 and iron-rich environment. This finding is consistent with the oldest evidence of life, namely microbial mats of bacteria and archaea that were the dominant life form during the earliest times of life on earth. Development and specialisation occurred during times of accelerated biodiversity, of which the Cambrian "explosion" was exceptional in scope and depth. DNA comparisons show that the phyla of the animal kingdom split into three groups, about 50 million years before the Cambrian period. The presence of complex DNA in all three groups that shared many characteristics, makes a complex ancestor a necessity. This indicates that the Cambrian biodiversification was driven by selection from the loaded genetic potential space of a single, shared ancestor. As a species, human DNA shows a much lower diversity than the genetic theory predicts, mainly due to its recency as well as the occurrence of a "population bottleneck", as indicated by the presence of a fusion chromosome. This fusion chromosome that once formed in a specific person, has become a shared chromosome of the entire human race. It is therefore currently generally accepted that the entire human population evolved from a very small group less than 160,000 years ago, possibly in Africa. Subsequently, through selection pressure, an identifiable gap, not only in form but especially in function, has arisen in modern humankind. The biblical narrative of Adam and Eve meets all the requirements for the threshold event that has been scientifically distinguished. In the Bible, it is said that God created man from the dust of the earth - in His image He created him. That humans have a common ancestor with monkeys seems to be true, just like with every organism on earth. We share much more than just ancestors with the rest of creation as was already stated, also building material, cells, organs, and a large part of our genome. That humans are unique in nature is, however, undeniable, and contemporary science cannot account for many empirical observations in this regard. It is therefore hypothesised that proto-man was created by guided development from the substance of the earth (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphate and sulphur). Later, a threshold event occurred (as described in Genesis) during which God transformed the proto-man "in His image". God guided human's minds far beyond survival requirements to develop a language-processed, secondary memory, enabling humankind to receive and internalise love, wisdom, and morality. These are unique attributes of God that make humankind the image of God. Of the change of proto-man's mind and his behaviour to modern humankind during the threshold event, there is ample scientific evidence. This could confirm the paradise narrative as a verifiable reality, as does Eve's creation from Adam. Modern scientific observations regarding the origin of the universe, the development of life and the origin of humans can be best understood when they are interpreted within a religious paradigm. Arno Penzias, physicist, and Nobel laureate is one of many scientists who conclude that the scientific evidence is consistent with the expectations flowing from theism. He writes: "The best data we have is exactly what I would have predicted, had I nothing to go on but the five books of Moses, the Psalms, the Bible as a whole."

Volgens materialiste kan die ontstaan van die mens verklaar word deur evolusie, waarvoor daar oortuigende bewyse is, soos bv. genetiese ooreenkomste, bewyse uit die fossielrekord sowel as anatomiese vergelykings. Daarteenoor stel die metafisiese siening dat mense deur 'n goddelike entiteit of 'n bonatuurlike krag geskep is. Hierdie siening word dikwels geassosieer met godsdienstige oortuigings en is (volgens die teenstanders daarvan) nie op empiriese bewyse gebaseer nie. As 'n spesie, toon menslike DNS (deoksiribonukleïensuur) 'n baie laer diversiteit as wat die genetiese teorie voorspel, hoofsaaklik as gevolg van die resentheid van die mens sowel as die voorkoms van 'n "bevolkingsbottelnek". Dit dui daarop dat die hele menslike bevolking minder as 160 000 jaar gelede uit 'n baie klein groepie ontwikkel het, waarskynlik in Afrika. Mense deel veel meer as net voorouers met die res van die skepping: ook boumateriaal, selle, organe en 'n groot deel van ons genoom. Dat mense uniek van aard is, is egter onbetwisbaar en kontemporêre wetenskap lewer vele empiriese waarnemings in hierdie verband, wat nie bevredigend verklaar kan word deur 'n onbegeleide, toevallige ontwikkelingsgeskiedenis nie. Die Bybelse narratief van Adam en Eva voldoen aan al die vereistes vir die drempelgebeurtenis in die menslike geskiedenis, wat wetenskaplik bewysbaar is. Die hipotese word daarom voorgehou dat die proto-mens geskep is deur begeleide ontwikkeling uit die stof van die aarde (koolstof, waterstof, stikstof, suurstof, fosfaat en swael). Later het 'n drempelgebeurtenis plaasgevind waartydens God die proto-mens "na Sy beeld" getransformeer het.