Abstract Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi of various genera. Among the most important mycotoxins are those produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium sp., which can be divided into several groups for study, which are the groups of trichothecenes (and T-2 toxin), fumonisins, mainly fumonisin B1 (B1, B2, B3, B4, A1, and A2), and zearalenone with estrogenic effects. Although fusariotoxins cause similar effects because they share the same mechanism of action, by altering protein synthesis in intoxicated poultry, it is important to mention the incidence as well as the characteristics between each of them. Therefore, the characteristics of each group mentioned are described in each section.

Resumen Las micotoxinas son metabolitos secundarios producidos por hongos de diversos géneros. Dentro de las micotoxinas más importantes se encuentran aquellas producidas por hongos del género Fusarium sp., el cual puede dividirse en varios grupos para su estudio que son el grupo de los tricotecenos (y toxina T-2), de las fumonisinas, principalmente fumonisina B1 (B1, B2, B3, B4, A1 Y A2) y de la zearalenona de efectos estrogénicos. Aunque las fusariotoxinas causan efectos similares debido a que comparten el mismo mecanismo de acción; mediante la alteración de síntesis de proteínas en las aves intoxicadas, es importante mencionar la incidencia, así como las características entre cada una de ellas. Es por esto que en cada apartado se describen las características de cada grupo mencionado.

Abstract In the field of non-thermal food processing technologies, the application of cold plasma stands out for its rapid growth and broad prospects. Cold plasma is generated by applying energy to ionize a specific gas, producing highly reactive species such as reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, as well as ozone, ions, free radicals, and ultraviolet radiation. The most common configurations for generating cold plasma include dielectric barrier discharge and corona discharge. Key applications and effects include the destruction of biofilms, inactivation of microorganisms, decontamination of mycotoxins, degradation of pesticides, and modification of starches, among others. Proposed mechanisms of action range from chemical and molecular modifications to cellular lysis and genetic damage. This article provides an updated overview of the principles, generation, and applications of cold plasma technology in the food industry.

Resumen En el ámbito de las tecnologías no térmicas para el procesamiento de alimentos, la aplicación de plasma frío destaca por su rápido crecimiento y amplias proyecciones. El plasma frío se genera aplicando energía que ioniza un gas específico, lo que produce especies altamente reactivas como las reactivas de oxígeno y nitrógeno, además de ozono, iones, radicales libres y radiación ultravioleta. Las configuraciones más comunes para su generación incluyen la descarga de barrera dieléctrica y la descarga corona. Sus aplicaciones y efectos clave abarcan la destrucción de biofilms, inactivación de microorganismos, descontaminación de micotoxinas, degradación de pesticidas y modificación de almidones, entre otros. Los mecanismos de acción propuestos varían desde modificaciones químicas y moleculares hasta lisis celular y daño genético. Este artículo proporciona una visión general actualizada sobre los principios, generación y aplicaciones del plasma frío en la industria alimentaria.

Resumen El maíz (Zea mays L.) es uno de los cultivos más sembrados en el mundo, siendo Argentina líder mundial en producción y exportación. La Provincia de Santiago del Estero, el este de Tucumán y el norte de Córdoba abarcan ocho zonas agroclimáticas en la región Chaco semiárida, la cual se caracteriza por un amplio rango de temperatura y frecuentes sequías que exponen al cultivo a patógenos, particularmente Aspergillus flavus, responsable de la podredumbre de la espiga y la contaminación de granos con micotoxinas como aflatoxina B1 y ácido ciclopiazónico. Se obtuvieron aislados del hongo desde espigas de maíz y se caracterizaron según capacidad toxigénica y morfotipos de esclerocios (S < 400 μm, asociados con elevados niveles de aflatoxinas y L > 400 μm, relacionados con niveles variables de aflatoxinas). Además, aquellos que no producían aflatoxinas se estudiaron para determinar sus relaciones filogenéticas sobre la base de un segmento del gen CaM. Cincuenta y ocho aislados fueron obtenidos en ocho localidades representativa de cada zona agroclimática, 30 de los cuales resultaron no aflatoxigénicos, 28 aflatoxigénicos y todos productores de ácido ciclopiazónico. Seis aislados no produjeron esclerocios, 51 fueron L y solo uno fue S, siendo este último no aflatoxigénico. El número de esclerocios correlacionó positivamente con la producción de aflatoxina B1, mientras que el tamaño lo hizo de manera negativa. Las secuencias del gen CaM corroboraron que los aislados pertenecen al clado A. flavus y la alta similitud nucleotídica (99,4% a 100%) reveló casi nula diversidad genética en esta región. No se observaron diferencias en la proporción de aislados entre campañas agrícolas estudiadas ni distritos agroclimáticos. Esta investigación reveló características de las poblaciones de hongos en esta región agrícola del norte argentino.

Abstract Maize (Zea mays L.) is one of the most widely planted crops globally with Argentina leading world production and exportation. Santiago del Estero province, east of Tucumán and north of Córdoba encompasses eight agro-climatic zones in the Chaco Semi-arid region, agro-ecologically characterized by a wide temperature range and frequent drought periods that expose the crop to pathogens, particularly Aspergillus flavus. This pathogen is responsible for ear rot and grain contamination with mycotoxins such as aflatoxin B1 and cyclopiazonic acid. This study obtained fungal isolates from ears of maize and characterized them according to toxigenic capability and morphotype of sclerotia (S < 400 μm, associated with high levels of aflatoxins and L > 400 μm, related to variable levels of aflatoxins). In addition, those not producing aflatoxins were studied to determine phylogenetic relationships based on sequences of a segment of the CaM gene. Fifty-eight isolates were obtained in eight localities representing each agro-climatic zone, 30 of which were non-aflatoxigenic, 28 aflatoxigenic, and all producers of ciclopiazonic acid. Six isolates did not produce sclerotia, 51 were L and only one was S, the latter being a non-producer of aflatoxins. The number of sclerotia was positively correlated with the production of aflatoxin B1, while size was negatively correlated. The CaM gene sequences corroborated that the isolates belonged to the A. flavus clade and the high nucleotide similarity among them (99.4% to 100%) revealed almost zero genetic diversity in this geographic region. No significant differences were observed in the proportion of isolates between growing seasons or among agroclimatic districts. This research revealed characteristics of fungus populations in this agricultural region of north Argentina.

Abstract Maize (Zea mays L.) is of socioeconomic importance as an essential food for human and animal nutrition. However, cereals are susceptible to attack by mycotoxin-producing fungi, which can damage health. The methods most commonly used to detect and quantify mycotoxins are expensive and time-consuming. Therefore, alternative non-destructive methods are required urgently. The present study aimed to use near-infrared spectroscopy with hyperspectral imaging (NIR-HSI) and multivariate image analysis to develop a rapid and accurate method for quantifying fumonisins in whole grains of six naturally contaminated maize cultivars. Fifty-eight samples, each containing 40 grains, were subjected to NIR-HSI. These were subsequently divided into calibration (38 samples) and prediction sets (20 samples) based on the multispectral data obtained. The averaged spectra were subjected to various pre-processing techniques (standard normal variate (SNV), first derivative, or second derivative). The most effective pre-treatment performed on the spectra was SNV. Partial least squares (PLS) models were developed to quantify the fumonisin content. The final model presented a correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.98 and root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the calibration set, an R2 of 0.95 and root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) of 508 µg.kg-1 for the test validation set and a ratio of performance to deviation of 4.7. It was concluded that NIR-HSI with partial least square regression is a rapid, effective, and non-destructive method to determine the fumonisin content in whole maize grains. Zea L. L nutrition However mycotoxinproducing mycotoxin producing fungi health timeconsuming. timeconsuming time consuming. consuming time-consuming Therefore nondestructive non destructive urgently nearinfrared near infrared NIRHSI NIR HSI (NIR-HSI cultivars Fiftyeight Fifty eight samples 4 NIRHSI. HSI. 38 (3 20 (2 obtained preprocessing pre processing standard SNV, SNV , (SNV) derivative derivative. . derivative) pretreatment treatment PLS (PLS R (R2 098 0 98 0.9 RMSEC (RMSEC 50 µg.kg1 µgkg1 µgkg µg.kg 1 µg kg µg.kg- 095 95 RMSEP (RMSEP 47 7 4.7 3 ( 2 (SNV (R 09 9 0. 5 kg1 4.

Resumo O milho (Zea mays L.) possui importância socioeconômica por constituir um dos alimentos básicos na nutrição humana e animal. Porém, o cereal é suscetível ao ataque de fungos produtores de micotoxinas que podem causar danos à saúde. Os métodos mais utilizados para detectar e quantificar micotoxinas são caros e demorados e métodos alternativos para a detecção das micotoxinas são uma necessidade. O presente trabalho tem como objetivo utilizar espectroscopia no infravermelho próximo com imagem hiperespectral (NIR-HSI) e análise multivariada de imagens para desenvolver um método rápido e preciso para quantificação de fumonisinas em grãos inteiros de seis cultivares de milho naturalmente contaminadas. Cinquenta e oito amostras, cada uma contendo 40 grãos, foram submetidas ao NIR-HSI e posteriormente divididas em um conjunto de calibração (38 amostras) e um conjunto de predição (20 amostras) com base nos dados multiespectrais obtidos. Os espectros médios foram submetidos a diversas técnicas de pré-processamento (variação normal padrão – SNV, primeira derivada ou segunda derivada). O melhor pré-processamento dos espectros foi SNV e um modelo de mínimos quadrados parciais (PLS) foi desenvolvido para quantificar o teor de fumonisinas. O modelo final apresentou coeficiente de correlação (R2) de 0,98 e raiz quadrada do erro médio quadrático de calibração (RMSEC) de 508 µg.kg-1 para o conjunto de calibração, R2 de 0,95 e raiz quadrada do erro médio quadrático de predição (RMSEP) de 508 µg.kg-1 para o conjunto de validação do teste e relação desempenho/desvio de 4,7. Conclui-se que o NIR-HSI com regressão parcial de mínimos quadrados pode ser um método rápido, eficaz e não destrutivo para determinar o teor de fumonisinas em grãos integrais de milho. Zea L. L animal Porém saúde necessidade NIRHSI NIR HSI (NIR-HSI contaminadas amostras 4 38 (3 20 (2 obtidos préprocessamento pré processamento variação derivada. . derivada) PLS (PLS R (R2 098 0 98 0,9 RMSEC (RMSEC 50 µg.kg1 µgkg1 µgkg µg.kg 1 µg kg µg.kg- 095 95 RMSEP (RMSEP desempenhodesvio desempenho desvio 47 7 4,7 Concluise Conclui se 3 ( 2 (R 09 9 0, 5 kg1 4,

Resumo A administração de doenças de plantas é difícil devido à natureza dos fitopatógenos. O controle biológico é um método seguro para evitar problemas relacionados a doenças fúngicas que afetam a produtividade das culturas e algumas bactérias patogênicas ao homem. Para isso, a atividade antimicrobiana da alga marinha Sargassum muticum metanol e de extratos aquosos foi investigada contra patógenos bacterianos humanos e fitopatógenos fúngicos. Usando metanol a 70%, o pó de algas marinhas foi extraído do ensaio de aditivos alimentares, a ultraestrutura (TEM). Os resultados revelaram inibição significativa do extrato metanólico de S. muticum contra Salmonella typhi (25,66 mm), Escherichia coli (24,33 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (22,33 mm) e Bacillus subtilis (19,66 mm). Alguns fitopatógenos fúngicos inibiram significativamente Fusarium moniliforme (30,33 mm), Pythium ultimum (26,33 mm), Aspergillus flavus (24,36 mm) e Macrophomina phaseolina (22,66 mm). A investigação fitoquímica do extrato de S. muticum mostrou a presença de compostos fenólicos e flavonoides. Os resultados sugeriram que há um nível apreciável de potencial antioxidante na atividade de eliminação de DPPH de S. muticum (79,86%). Estudos ultraestruturais da hifa de Fusarium moniliforme cultivada em meio contendo extrato de S. muticum na concentração de 300 mg/ml mostraram espessamento da parede celular, desintegração do citoplasma, grandes corpos lipídicos e vacúolos. Em conclusão, nosso estudo revelou a atividade antibacteriana do extrato de S. muticum significativamente contra algumas bactérias Gram-positivas, Gram-negativas e atividade antifúngica contra alguns fungos fitopatogênicos e alguns produtores de micotoxinas. Flavonoides e fenólicos desempenham papel importante como antioxidantes e propriedades antimicrobianas. Tal estudo revelou que o extrato metanólico de S. muticum pode ser usado como biocontrole ecologicamente correto para fungos fitopatogênicos e aditivos alimentares para proteger os produtos pecuários.

Abstract Plant disease administration is difficult due to the nature of phytopathogens. Biological control is a safe method to avoid the problems related to fungal diseases affecting crop productivity and some human pathogenic bacteria. For that, the antimicrobial activity of the seaweed Sargassum muticum methanol and water extracts were investigated against human bacterial pathogens and fungal plant pathogens. By using 70 percent methanol, the seaweed powder was extracted, feeding additives assay, ultrastructure (TEM). Results revealed significant inhibition of S. muticum methanol extract against Salmonella typhi (25.66 mm), Escherichia coli (24.33 mm), Staphylococcus aureus (22.33 mm) and Bacillus subtilis. (19.66 mm), some fungal phytopathogens significantly inhibited Fusarium moniliforme (30.33mm), Pythium ultimum (26.33 mm), Aspergillus flavus (24.36mm), and Macrophomina phaseolina (22.66mm). Phytochemical investigation of S. muticum extract showed the presence of phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Results suggested that there is an appreciable level of antioxidant potential in S. muticum (79.86%) DPPH scavenging activity. Ultrastructural studies of Fusarium moniliforme hypha grown on a medium containing S. muticum extract at concentration 300mg/ml showed a thickening cell wall, disintegration of cytoplasm, large lipid bodies and vacuoles. In conclusion, our study revealed The antibacterial activity of S. muticum extract significantly against some Gram positive, Gram negative bacteria and antifungal activity against some phytopathogenic and some mycotoxin producer fungi. Flavonoids, phenolic play an important role as antioxidants and antimicrobial properties. Such study revealed that S. muticum methanol extract could be used as ecofriendly biocontrol for phytopathogenic fungi and feeding additives to protect livestock products.

RESUMO: Um experimento foi conduzido para avaliar a produtividade, a composição nutricional e a contaminação por micotoxinas em diferentes híbridos de milho. Essas medidas também foram correlacionadas com o impacto do custo do milho na formulação de ração inicial para frangos de corte. Um total de 150 amostras de 50 híbridos de milho foram obtidas em experimento de campo. As variáveis nutricionais foram preditas via NIRS e as micotoxinas foram analisadas por HPLC-MS/MS. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de variância e os híbridos agrupados pelo teste de Scott-Knott a 5% de significância. Correlação de Pearson foi realizada entre as principais variáveis. A maioria das variáveis foi diferente entre os híbridos de milho (P < 0,05), com exceção de fósforo disponível, grãos avariados e contaminações por DON e ZEA (P > 0,05). A produtividade teve correlação positiva (P < 0,05) com o custo de formulação da ração (r = 0,35) e correlação negativa (P < 0,05) com proteína bruta (-0,42), Tre digestível (dig.) (-0,42) e Met+Cis dig. (-0,42). O custo da formulação de rações apresentou correlação positiva (P < 0,05) com FUM (0,33) e ZEA (0,29), e negativa (P < 0,05) com proteína bruta (-0,74). Diferentes híbridos de milho variam em produtividade, conteúdo nutricional e contaminação por micotoxinas. Foi demonstrado que um aumento no rendimento à campo pode estar relacionado com redução no conteúdo nutricional e na qualidade do milho, resultando em um aumento no custo da formulação de ração. RESUMO corte 15 5 HPLCMS/MS. HPLCMSMS HPLC MS/MS. MS HPLC-MS/MS ScottKnott Scott Knott significância P 0,05, 005 0,05 , 0 05 disponível 0,05. . r 0,35 035 35 0,42, 042 0,42 42 dig (dig. (-0,42 MetCis Met Cis 0,42. 0,33 033 33 (0,33 0,29, 029 0,29 29 (0,29) 0,74. 074 0,74 74 (-0,74) 1 HPLCMS HPLCMS/MS MSMS MS/MS 00 0,0 0,3 03 3 04 0,4 4 (dig (-0,4 (0,3 02 0,2 2 (0,29 07 0,7 7 (-0,74 0, (-0, (0, (0,2 (-0,7 (-0 (0 (- (

ABSTRACT: An experiment was conducted to assess the crop yield, nutritional composition, and mycotoxin contamination in different corn hybrids. The impact of these variables on the feed formulation cost of starter diets for broilers was also evaluated. A total of 150 samples from 50 corn hybrids was obtained from a field experiment. Nutrients were predicted by NIRS and mycotoxins were analyzed by HPLC-MS/MS. Data were submitted to analysis of variance and corn hybrids were grouped using Scott-Knott test at 5% significance. Pearson correlation analysis was performed among the main variables. Most of the variables were different among corn hybrids (P < 0.05), with exception of available phosphorus (Av. P), damaged grains, and DON and ZEA contaminations (P > 0.05). Crop yield had a positive correlation (P < 0.05) with feed formulation cost (r = 0.35) and a negative correlation (P < 0.05) with crude protein (-0.42), digestible (dig.) Thr (-0.42), and dig. Met+Cys (-0.42). The feed cost correlated positively (P < 0.05) with FUM (0.33) and ZEA (0.29), and negatively (P < 0.05) with crude protein (-0.74). Different corn hybrids vary in their productivity, nutritional content and mycotoxins contamination. It was demonstrated that an increase in the crop yield might be related to a reduction in corn nutritional content and quality, resulting in an increase in feed formulation cost. ABSTRACT composition evaluated 15 5 HPLCMS/MS. HPLCMSMS HPLC MS/MS. MS HPLC-MS/MS ScottKnott Scott Knott significance P 0.05, 005 0.05 , 0 05 Av. Av (Av P, P) grains 0.05. . r 0.35 035 35 0.42, 042 0.42 42 (-0.42) dig (dig. MetCys Met Cys 0.42. 0.33 033 33 (0.33 0.29, 029 0.29 29 (0.29) 0.74. 074 0.74 74 (-0.74) productivity quality 1 HPLCMS HPLCMS/MS MSMS MS/MS 00 0.0 0.3 03 3 04 0.4 4 (-0.42 (dig (0.3 02 0.2 2 (0.29 07 0.7 7 (-0.74 0. (-0.4 (0. (0.2 (-0.7 (-0. (0 (-0 ( (-

RESUMEN Introducción: La aflatoxina B1 se encuentra entre las micotoxinas más comunes y venenosas producidas por ciertos hongos que dañan a los animales y los cultivos. Las micotoxinas pueden causar una variedad de efectos adversos para la salud y representar una grave amenaza para la salud de los seres humanos. Los límites máximos de residuos de aflatoxina B1en cereales e ingredientes procesados son de 2 ppb y 5 ppb, respectivamente. Objetivos: Evaluar el estado de contaminación por aflatoxina B1 en arroz, maíz y alimentos básicos producidos en la provincia de Ha Giang, en comparación con los niveles máximos permitidos. Métodos: Se analizaron un total de 210 muestras de arroz y maíz para cuantificar el nivel de aflatoxina B1. El análisis de micotoxinas se realizó mediante cromatografía líquida de alta resolución, utilizando un detector de fluorescencia. Resultados: Se encontró que el arroz, los productos de arroz, el maíz y los productos de maíz tenían un contenido medio de aflatoxin B1, de 1,79 ppb, 2,55 ppb, 2,19 ppb y 6,35 ppb, respectivamente. Los resultados también mostraron que el 71,9 % de las muestras estaban contaminadas con micotoxinas y el 14,28 % de las muestras excedieron el límite máximo permitido. Conclusión: La concentración de aflatoxina B1 en el 14,28 % de las muestras está por encima de los límites permisibles por la norma nacional.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Aflatoxins B1 are among the most common poisonous mycotoxins produced by certain fungi that harm animals and crops. Mycotoxins can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. The Maximum Residue Limits of aflatoxin B1 in processed cereals and ingredients are 2 parts per billion (ppb) and 5 ppb, respectively. Objectives: To evaluate the status of aflatoxin B1 contamination in rice, corn and staple food produced in Ha Giang province compared with the maximum permitted levels. Methods: A total of 210 rice and maize samples were analyzed to quantify the level of aflatoxin B1. Analysis of mycotoxins was conducted by High Performance Liquid Chromatography using a fluorescence detector. Results: It was found that rice, rice products, maize, and maize products had a mean aflatoxin B1 content of 1.79 ppb, 2.55 ppb, 2.19 ppb, and 6.35 ppb, respectively. The results also showed that 71.9% of samples were contaminated with mycotoxins, and 14.28% of samples exceeded the maximum allowable limit. Conclusion: The concentration of aflatoxin B1 in 14.28% of the samples are over permissible limits by nationwide regulations.

Resumen Las micotoxinas son sustancias producidas por varias especies de mohos que pueden crecer sobre los alimentos en determinadas condiciones de humedad y temperatura y se constituyen en un verdadero riesgo para la salud humana y animal. El objetivo del presente estudio fue determinar la presencia de micotoxinas (aflatoxinas) en alimentos primarios y procesados para humanos y animales de granja en Riobamba, Ecuador. Se tomaron doce muestras con cuatro réplicas de alimentos primarios: arroz, pollo, leche cruda, maíz, alfalfa, trigo, y alimentos procesados: salchichas de pollo, leche pasteurizada, pan y concentrados para pollos, vacas y cerdos de los distintos mercados con mayor concentración de oferta de productos, las cuales fueron analizadas a través del método de inmunoabsorción ligado a enzimas ELISA (Veratox® for Aflatoxin Quantitative Test y Veratox® Aflatoxin M1, Neogen) con capacidad para determinar cuantitativamente aflatoxinas B1, B2, G1, G2, M1. Del total de muestras analizadas, el 98 % presentaron contaminación con aflatoxinas que, de acuerdo con el Codex alimentario ecuatoriano, se encuentran en los parámetros permitidos: menos de 10 µg kg-1, para alimentos y piensos y menos de 0,5 µg l-1 para el caso de la leche.

Abstract Mycotoxins are substances produced by several species of molds that can grow on food under certain conditions of humidity and temperature, and constitute a real risk to human and animal health. The objective of the present study was to determine the presence of Mycotoxins (Aflatoxins) in primary and processed foods for humans and farm animals in Riobamba, Ecuador. Twelve samples were taken with 4 replicates of primary foods: rice, chicken, raw milk, corn, alfalfa, and wheat; and, processed foods: chicken sausages, pasteurized milk, bread and concentrates for chickens, cows, and pigs from the different markets with the highest concentration of product offer, which were analyzed through the ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent method (Veratox® for Aflatoxin Quantitative Test and Veratox® Aflatoxin M1, NEOGEN) with the capacity to determine quantitatively aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2, M1. Of the total samples analyzed, 98 % presented contamination by aflatoxins, which according to the Ecuadorian Food Codex are within the allowed permitted parameters of less than 10 µg kg-1, for food and feed, and, less than 0.5 µg l-1 for milk.

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to perform a fungal count and detect mycotoxins in feed supplies and balanced feed from pig farms in four districts of Coronel Portillo, Ucayali. Fifty samples were collected (35 of balances feeds [three rearing stages] from 20 farms and 15 of feed supplies from 10 of these farms). The fungal count was performed using the plate count method and the detection of mycotoxins (aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenone) using commercial ELISA kits. Results showed that 50% of farms had at least one sample of unacceptable quality. Likewise, 6/15 (40%) and 5/35 (14.3%) of feed supplies and balanced feed samples, respectively, had unacceptable quality. The starter feed had the highest average fungal count (9.6 x 104 CFU/g). There was an association between quality and type of food, but none between quality and origin. Half of the farms had at least one feed sample with mycotoxins above the Maximum Permissible Level (MPL) and 42.9% (15/35) of the samples had at least one mycotoxin above the MPL. The highest mean for aflatoxin B1 was found in the starter feed (26.2 ppb) and the highest for zearalenone in breeders feed (74.5 ppb).

RESUMEN El objetivo del estudio fue realizar el recuento de hongos y detectar micotoxinas en insumos y alimento balanceado de granjas porcinas de cuatro distritos de Coronel Portillo, Ucayali. Se recolectaron 50 muestras (35 de alimento de tres etapas de crianza de 20 granjas y 15 de insumos de 10 de estos establecimientos). El recuento de hongos se realizó mediante el método de conteo en placa y la detección de micotoxinas (aflatoxina B1, ocratoxina A y zearalenona) mediante kits comerciales de ELISA. El 50% de establecimientos tuvo al menos una muestra de calidad inaceptable. Asimismo, 6/15 (40%) y 5/35 (14.3%) de las muestras de insumos y alimento, respectivamente, tuvieron calidad inaceptable. El alimento de inicio presentó el mayor promedio en el recuento de hongos (9.6 x 104 UFC/g). Hubo asociación entre calidad y tipo de alimento, pero ninguna entre calidad y procedencia. La mitad de las granjas tuvo al menos una muestra de alimento con micotoxinas por encima al Límite Máximo Permisible (LMP) y el 42.9% (15/35) de las muestras tuvo al menos una micotoxina por encima a los LMP. El promedio más alto de aflatoxina B1 se encontró en el alimento de inicio (26.2 ppb) y el más alto de zearalenona en alimento de reproductores (74.5 ppb).

ABSTRACT Fusarium head blight, also known as fusariosis, is caused by a fungus called Fusarium graminearum that produces the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON). This toxin causes problems to human and animal health. Ammonia gas has been shown to be effective in deactivating mycotoxins. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effectiveness of ammonia gas in the deactivation of DON in wheat grains, the effect of this treatment on its protein composition and the toxicity in rats fed with ammoniated wheat grains. Wheat samples were exposed to ammonia gas at concentrations of 0% (Control), 0.5%, 1% and 1.5%. It was observed that ammonia gas was effective in deactivating DON at concentrations of 1% and 1.5%. There was no difference in crude protein observed in the bromatological analysis of treated wheat grains in relation to the control. Regarding the toxicity of wheat grains treated with ammonia in the feeding of Wistar rats (Rattus norvegicus), no histopathological alterations were observed in the liver, kidneys, intestine and in the hematological profile. The results of this study demonstrated that the treatment of wheat with ammonia gas can contribute to the deactivation of DON without compromising its protein composition and animal health. blight fusariosis DON. . (DON) health mycotoxins 0 Control, Control , (Control) 05 5 0.5% 1 15 1.5% control Rattus norvegicus, norvegicus norvegicus) liver kidneys profile (DON (Control 0.5 1.5 0. 1.

RESUMO A giberela, também conhecida como fusariose, é causada por um fungo chamado Fusarium graminearum, que produz a micotoxina desoxinivalenol (DON). Essa toxina gera problemas à saúde humana e animal. O gás amônia demonstrou ser eficaz na desativação das micotoxinas. Os objetivos deste estudo foram avaliar a eficácia do gás amônia na desativação do DON em grãos de trigo contaminados naturalmente, o efeito desse tratamento na sua composição proteica e a toxicidade em ratos alimentados com os grãos de trigo amonizados. Amostras de trigo foram expostas ao gás amônia nas concentrações de 0% (controle), 0,5%, 1% e 1,5%. Observou-se que o gás amônia foi eficaz na desativação do DON na concentração de 1% e 1,5%. Não houve diferença na proteína bruta observada na análise bromatológica dos grãos de trigo tratados em relação ao controle. Quanto à toxicidade dos grãos de trigo tratados com amônia fornecidos aos ratos Wistar (Rattus norvegicus), não foram observadas alterações histopatológicas do fígado, dos rins e do intestino e no perfil hematológico. Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que o tratamento de trigo com gás amônia pode contribuir na desativação do DON sem comprometer sua composição proteíca e a saúde dos animais. giberela fusariose graminearum DON. . (DON) animal micotoxinas naturalmente amonizados 0 controle, controle , (controle) 05 5 0,5% 1 15 1,5% Observouse Observou se Rattus norvegicus, norvegicus norvegicus) fígado hematológico animais (DON (controle 0,5 1,5 0, 1,

Abstract Consumption of wild mushrooms has increased in recent years; however, not all of them are edible and there is no precise information on those that may cause poisoning. Therefore, studies to obtain data about their toxicity are needed. For this purpose, we used the brine shrimp Artemia franciscana, a crustacean employed in toxicity tests and with wide application in the toxin detection, including mycotoxins. Mushrooms were collected in the state of Jalisco, Mexico, with which aqueous extracts were prepared. Dilutions of the stock solution of each extract were made to final concentrations of 50, 100, 250, 500, and 1000 µg/mL. Potassium dichromate (PD) was used as positive control and artificial seawater as negative control. The median lethal dose (LD50) of extracts on nauplii of A. franciscana was calculated. The aqueous extracts obtained from Amanita amerivirosa, A. muscaria, Chlorophyllum molybdites, and Leucopaxillus amarus showed a LD50 < 70 µg/mL, similar to PD (LD50 = 37 µg/mL). This is the first indication of the probable toxicity of Leucopaxillus amarus in humans. Cantharellus cibarius and Scleroderma texense caused the lower toxicity to the nauplii. The brine shrimp bioassay was effective in evaluating the toxicity of Basidiomycota. Scleroderma texense has been reported to be toxic, but it was not for this crustacean nauplii, and probably not to humans either, as recent literature has reported. years however poisoning Therefore needed purpose detection mycotoxins Jalisco Mexico prepared 50 100 250 500 µgmL µg mL µg/mL (PD LD A calculated amerivirosa muscaria molybdites LD5 7 (LD5 3 . µg/mL) Basidiomycota toxic either 5 10 25 (LD 1 2

Resumo O consumo de cogumelos silvestres aumentou nos últimos anos; porém, nem todas as variedades são comestíveis e não há informações precisas sobre aquelas que podem causar intoxicação. Portanto, estudos para obter dados sobre sua toxicidade são necessários. Para tanto, utilizou-se o artêmia Artemia franciscana, crustáceo utilizado em testes de toxicidade e com ampla aplicação na detecção de toxinas, incluindo micotoxinas. Cogumelos foram coletados no estado de Jalisco, México, com os quais foram preparados extratos aquosos. As diluições da solução estoque de cada extrato foram feitas para as concentrações finais de 50, 100, 250, 500 e 1000 µg/mL. Dicromato de potássio (PD) foi usado como controle positivo e água do mar artificial como controle negativo. Calculou-se a dose letal mediana (DL50) dos extratos sobre os náuplios de A. franciscana. Os extratos aquosos obtidos de Amanita amerivirosa, A. muscaria, Chlorophyllum molybdites e Leucopaxillus amarus apresentaram DL50 < 70 µg/mL, semelhante ao DP (LD50 = 37 µg/mL). Esta é a primeira indicação da provável toxicidade de L.amarus em humanos. Cantharellus cibarius e Scleroderma texense causaram a menor toxicidade aos náuplios. O bioensaio de artêmia foi eficaz na avaliação da toxicidade de Basidiomycota. Scleroderma texense foi relatado como tóxico, mas não foi para este náuplio de crustáceo e provavelmente também não para os humanos, como a literatura recente relatou. anos porém intoxicação Portanto necessários tanto utilizouse utilizou se franciscana toxinas micotoxinas Jalisco México 50 100 250 µgmL µg mL µg/mL PD (PD negativo Calculouse Calculou DL (DL50 A amerivirosa muscaria DL5 7 LD50 LD (LD5 3 . µg/mL) Lamarus L humanos Basidiomycota tóxico relatou 5 10 25 (DL5 LD5 (LD 1 2 (DL

ABSTRACT The fungus Fusarium verticillioides produces fumonisins (FB1 and FB2), characterized by being the most frequently produced molecular forms and with greater toxicity. Fumonisin contamination is responsible for substantial losses during the meat production chain, so the safe levels of these compounds must be determined. The study was directed to establish safe levels of FB1 in poultry production; for this purpose, were used COBB 500® birds on experimental lots of infected corn during the 2015/2016 season in Brazil. The experimental group included 160 animals, divided into two groups: The T1 without fumonisin in the diet (control); and the T2 group in which corn was contaminated with 2.78 μg/g of fumonisin FB1. Histopathological effects of liver, heart, and small intestine, and zootechnical parameters were measured in birds treated. We found that there were no significant differences between the birds treated and untreated after 21 days of exposure to each treatment; F-values > P-values (P<0,05) for feed intake and weekly weight gain. Taken together, our data showed that the concentration evaluated is safe in poultry and will contribute to the design of future clinical studies.

RESUMEN El hongo Fusarium verticillioides produce fumonisinas (FB1 y FB2), caracterizadas por ser las formas moleculares más frecuentemente producidas y con la toxicidad más significativa. La contaminación por fumonisinas es responsable de pérdidas sustanciales durante la cadena de producción de carne por lo que niveles seguros de estos compuestos deben ser determinados. Este estudio pretende establecer niveles seguros de FB1 en la producción avícola; para ello, se utilizaron aves COBB 500® en lotes experimentales de maíz infectado durante la temporada 2015/2016 en Brasil. El grupo experimental incluyó 160 animales, divididos en dos grupos: T1 sin fumonisinas en la dieta (control); y el grupo T2 en el que el maíz fue contaminado con 2,78μg/g de fumonisina FB1. Fueron medidos los efectos histopatológicos en hígado, corazón e intestino delgado y parámetros zootécnicos en aves tratadas. No se encontraron diferencias significativas entre las aves tratadas y el control después de 21 días de exposición, para consumo de alimento y ganancia de peso semanal. En conjunto, los resultados muestran que la concentración de FB1 evaluada es segura en aves de corral y contribuirán al diseño de futuros estudios clínicos.

Resumen Introducción. El frijol común (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) y el maní (Arachis hypogaea L.) son leguminosas consumidas en países en vías de desarrollo. Sin embargo, estos granos pueden estar contaminados con Aspergillus, un género de hongo que incluye especies productoras de micotoxinas. Objetivo. Identificar las especies de Aspergillus que colonizan los granos de frijol y maní en Costa Rica e identificar cepas atoxigénicas de A. flavus. Materiales y métodos. Se recolectaron 83 muestras de granos de frijol común y 19 muestras de maní durante los años 2019 y 2020, en regiones productoras de estos cultivos en Costa Rica. El total de muestras se utilizaron para aislar e identificar las especies de Aspergillus, mediante secuenciación parcial de los genes ITS (espaciador transcrito interno) y cmd (calmodulina). También se identificaron cepas atoxigénicas de A. flavus por métodos químicos y moleculares. Resultados. Un 46 % y 32 % de las muestras recolectadas de frijol y maní, respectivamente, presentaron contaminación con Aspergillus spp. Se obtuvieron 85 aislamientos de Aspergillus en frijol, la mayoría pertenecientes a las especies A. flavus y A. niger. La mayor parte de los aislamientos de A. flavus se recuperaron de las variedades de frijol Cabécar (quince aislamientos) y Nambí (siete aislamientos), mientras que A. niger se aisló, en su mayoría, de la variedad Cabécar (once aislamientos). En el caso del maní, se obtuvieron trece aislamientos, la mayoría de ellos identificados como A. niger. No se encontraron cepas atoxigénicas en maní, sin embargo, en frijol se encontraron cinco cepas de A. flavus con esta característica. Conclusiones. El presente estudio demostró la diversidad de especies de Aspergillus que colonizan los granos de frijoles y maní en Costa Rica. La mayoría de las especies aisladas son productoras de micotoxinas que causan efectos adversos en la salud humana.

Abstract Introduction. Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) are legumes, widely consumed in developing countries. However, those grains could be contaminated with Aspergillus, a genus of fungus that includes mycotoxin-producing species. Objective. To identify the Aspergillus species that colonize the grains of common beans and peanuts in Costa Rica and to identify atoxigenic strains of A. flavus. Materials and methods. Eighty-three samples of common bean grains and nineteen samples of peanuts were collected during the years 2019 and 2020 in regions where those grains are produced in Costa Rica. All samples were used to isolate and identify Aspergillus species by partial sequences of ITS (internal transcribed spacer) and cmd (calmodulin) genes. Atoxigenic strains of A. flavus were also identified by chemical and molecular methods. Results. 46 % and 32 % of the collected common beans and peanuts samples, respectively, were contaminated with Aspergillus spp. In common beans, 85 isolates of Aspergillus were obtained, most of them belonging to A. flavus and A. niger species. Most of the A. flavus isolates were obtained from the Cabécar (fifteen isolates) and Nambí (seven isolates) common bean varieties, while A. niger was mostly isolated from the Cabécar variety (eleven isolates). In the case of peanuts, thirteen isolates were obtained, most of them identified as A. niger. No atoxigenic strains were found in peanuts, however, in common beans, five strains of A. flavus with this characteristic were found. Conclusions. The present study demonstrated the diversity of Aspergillus species that colonize the grains of common beans and peanuts in Costa Rica. Most of the species isolated are producers of mycotoxins that cause adverse effects on human health.

RESUMEN Antecedentes Las granjas camaroneras son cada vez más vulnerables a los efectos negativos de las aflatoxinas (AF), ya que se utilizan con frecuencia ingredientes de origen vegetal en las dietas. Objetivos Evaluar los efectos de un secuestrante de AF a base de bentonita sobre los parámetros de crecimiento y la actividad de las enzimas fosfatasa alcalina (ALP) y glutatión S-transferasa (GST) en juveniles de camarón Litopenaeus vannamei alimentados con dietas contaminadas con AF durante 42 días. Metodos Los camarones se asignaron aleatoriamente a los siguientes grupos de estudio, que incluyeron una dieta no contaminada (NCD), una dieta contaminada con AF (ACD) y grupos suplementados con ACD y conteniendo 1, 1.5 o 2 g/kg de alimento de Mycofix Plus (MyP), un aglutinante de micotoxinas a base de arcilla que contiene bentonita, enzimas, algas y extractos de plantas. Resultados Los camarones de ACD tuvieron un peso medio, una tasa de crecimiento, un consumo de alimento y un porcentaje de retención de nitrógeno significativamente más bajos en comparación con los camarones del grupo NCD. Todos los tratamientos MyP dieron como resultado un peso medio, una tasa de crecimiento y una eficiencia de retención de nitrógeno similares a los camarones alimentados con NCD, mientras que solo ACD + 1 y ACD + 1.5 MyP tuvieron actividades ALP y GST similares a las de los camarones alimentados con NCD. Curiosamente, los camarones de ACD + 2 MyP tenían altas actividades de ALP y GST, incluso más altas que los animales ACD. Conclusiones MyP protegió a los camarones de los efectos adversos de las AF; sin embargo, en la dosis más alta, aumentaron las actividades de las enzimas metabólicas probablemente debido a otros compuestos bioactivos presentes en MyP.

ABSTRACT Background Shrimp farms are increasingly vulnerable to aflatoxin (AF) negative effects as frequent inclusion of plant-based ingredients is used in the diets. Goals Evaluate the impact of a bentonite-based AF binder on growth parameters, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and glutathione s-transferase (GST) activities of juvenile Litopenaeus vannamei shrimp fed AF contaminated diets for 42 days. Methods Juvenile shrimps were randomly assigned to the following study groups, including a non-contaminated diet (NCD), an AF contaminated diet (ACD), and ACD supplemented groups with either 1, 1.5 or 2 g/kg feed of Mycofix Plus (MyP), a clay-based mycotoxin binder that contains bentonite, enzymes, algae, and plants extracts. Results Shrimp from ACD had a significantly lower mean weight, growth rate, feed intake and nitrogen retention percentage when compared to shrimp from the NCD group. All MyP treatments resulted in similar mean weight, growth rate and nitrogen retention efficiency to NCD animals, at the same time, only the ACD + 1 and ACD + 1.5 MyP had ALP and GST activities similar than that of shrimp fed NCD. Interestingly, shrimp from ACD + 2 MyP had high ALP and GST activities, even higher than the ACD animals. Conclusions MyP protected shrimp from adverse AFs effects, however, at the highest dose, it increased metabolic enzyme activities, likely due to other bioactive compounds present in MyP.

RESUMO O objetivo deste estudo era determinar a eficácia do manejo de micotoxinas com aditivo alimentar através do monitoramento de parâmetros bioquímicos do sangue, estado de reprodução e saúde do úbere em vacas. Durante os primeiros 1-12 meses, o desempenho de reprodução foi avaliado. As vacas foram alimentadas apenas com ração total mista (TMR) com micotoxinas naturalmente contaminadas (ZEN;DON;AFB1;OTA) e as vacas foram consideradas como um grupo de controle (CG). Nos meses 13-15, dois grupos foram criados: controle (CG)(n=30) e experimental (EG)(n=60). O CG foi alimentado com TMR contaminado e o EG foi alimentado com o mesmo TMR+40g/ aditivo para o manejo de micotoxinas de vacas (TMXL1000). Durante este período, foram estudados os indicadores de sangue e a saúde do úbere. A partir dos meses 16-24, todas as vacas foram alimentadas com TMR+40 g/ vaca contaminada (TMXL1000) e consideradas como o EG. As concentrações de IgA no GC diminuíram no 15º mês (p<0,05). As concentrações de cortisol diminuíram duas vezes (p<0,05) no GE. O tratamento do cisto ovariano foi mais eficaz em 14,98% (p<0,05) no GE do que no GC (p<0,05). O GE realizou uma resposta efetiva (18,02%) (p<0,05) ao protocolo ovsynch aplicado em comparação com o GC. De acordo com os resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que o aditivo alimentar para o manejo de micotoxinas teve um impacto positivo na saúde das vacas leiteiras.

ABSTRACT The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of mycotoxin management with feed additive by monitoring biochemical blood parameters, reproduction status and udder health in cows. During the first 1-12-months, the reproduction performance was assessed. The cows were fed only total mixed ration (TMR) with naturally contaminated mycotoxins (ZEN;DON;AFB1;OTA) and the cows were regarded as a control group (CG). In months 13-15, two groups were created: control (CG)(n=30) and experimental (EG)(n=60). The CG was fed with contaminated TMR and the EG was fed with the same TMR+40g/cow mycotoxins management feed additive (TMXL1000). During this period, blood indicators and udder health were studied. Beginning with months 16-24, all cows were fed with contaminated TMR+40 g/cow (TMXL1000) and regarded as the EG. The IgA concentrations in the CG decreased in the 15th month (p<0.05). The concentrations of cortisol decreased by two times (p<0.05) in the EG. Ovarian cyst treatment was more effective by 14.98% (p<0.05) in the EG than in the CG (p<0.05). The EG performed an effective (18.02%) (p<0.05) response to applied ovsynch protocol compared with the CG. According to the obtained results, it can be concluded that feed additive for mycotoxins management had a positive impact on dairy cow health.