Abstract Reuse water is defined as the reuse of water from treated effluents, it requires careful monitoring to avoid damage to environmental health. This study evaluates the decay of Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. bacteria in soil irrigated with reused water for agricultural reuse, without damaging public or environmental health. The decay of Escherichia coli and of Salmonella spp. was verified using the Filter Membrane method SS AGAR culture medium was used. The decay curves over time were made using the Sigmaplot program. Each experimental group had 4 pots (one group irrigated with recycled water and the other with drinking water), two pots containing vegetation cover and two containing only soil. In crops irrigated with reused water, the survival time of Salmonella spp. was double compared to the others, and E. coli survival did not vary between groups. Pots with bare soil irrigated with uncontaminated reused water showed a faster decline in Salmonella spp. For agricultural reuse, irrigation must be done by drip and with the use of personal protective equipment. It is essential to create national legislation to protect public and environmental health. effluents health spp used program one , water) others E groups equipment

Resumo A água de reúso é definida como a reutilização de águas provenientes de efluentes tratados, e requer segurança sanitária para evitar danos à saúde ambiental. O objetivo foi avaliar o decaimento de bactérias (Escherichia coli e Salmonella spp.) em solo irrigado com água de reúso, visando o reúso agrícola sem causar danos à saúde pública e ambiental.O decaimento de Escherichia coli foi verificado utilizando o método de Membrana Filtrante, e o de Salmonella spp. foi utilizado o meio de cultura SS AGAR. As curvas de decaimento ao longo do tempo foram feitas pelo programa Sigmaplot. Cada grupo experimental tinha 4 vasos (grupo irrigado com água de reúso e outro com água potável) sendo dois vasos contendo cobertura vegetal e dois contendo apenas solo. Nos cultivos irrigados com água de reúso, o tempo de sobrevivência de Salmonella spp. foi o dobro em comparação aos demais, e a sobrevivência da Escherichia coli não variou entre os grupos. Os vasos com solo nu irrigados com água de reúso sem contaminação mostraram um decaimento da Salmonella spp. mais rápido. Para o reúso agrícola a rega deve ser por gotejamento e com a utilização de equipamentos de proteção individual. É fundamental a criação de legislação nacional, prevenindo danos à saúde pública e ambiental. tratados ambiental spp ambientalO Filtrante AGAR Sigmaplot potável demais grupos rápido individual nacional

Abstract This study explores the development of biodegradable filaments for additive manufacturing, aiming to create membranes for oil and water separation. Using a mixture of poly (lactic acid) and poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT) with additives such as zinc oxide, biocide and carnauba wax. The research evaluates the potential of these materials in membrane prototyping for this application. Characterization techniques such as FTIR, XRD, DSC and tensile strength were employed. The results showed that the addition of the additives did not induce the formation of new bands in the FTIR. However, new diffraction peaks appeared in the composites indicating the presence of the zinc oxide. DSC revealed a double peak in melting and crystallization temperatures and the mechanical tests showed significant influence of additives on tensile strength. The composite filaments proved to be suitable for 3D printing, suggesting their applicability in the manufacture of filter membranes for oil and water separation. manufacturing separation lactic acid butylene coterephthalate co terephthalate co-terephthalate PLA/PBAT PLAPBAT PLA PBAT (PLA/PBAT oxide wax application FTIR XRD employed However D printing

Abstract: Sago starch is extracted from the stems of the sago palm, Metroxylon sagu, in Southeast Asia. A typical Sago starch processing mill in Malaysia generates approximately 20 tons of starch daily containing effluents that can be recovered and marketed to sustain a small-scale industry. Tangential flow filtration (TFF) using microfiltration membranes (MFM) has been demonstrated as an effective method for separating suspended solids in biological effluents. When TFF was applied to concentrate the starch from the sago starch suspensions (SSS), the membrane permeability and lifecycle were impacted due to frequent fouling. This study evaluated cleaning methods to recover the permeability and extend the life cycle of MFM following TFF application. Polysulfone membrane filter cassettes of pore size 0.45 μm and surface area 0.1 m2 were each used to separate starch in 100 L of SSS. Following separation, six chemical and physical cleaning methods were tested at laboratory-scale and the degree of cleaning was measured by normalized permeate flux (NPF) and normalized water permeability (NWP). The results showed that soaking the membranes in a 0.2 M NaOH solution (up to 91%, (p<0.05) within a minimum of 72 h, (p<0.05) was the best cleaning method. The procedure has been utilized to maintain and extend the life cycle of the MFM for streams containing starch suspensions.

Abstract This work describes the physicochemical study of chitin and chitosan isolated from the brown shrimp exo-skeleton (Farfantepenaeus californiensis), which is collected from the Gulf of California. A consecutive treatment carried out the chitin isolation process, including demineralization and deproteinization. On the other hand, the preparation of chitosan was through alkaline hydrolysis, and the product purified by using membrane filter series to homogenize the macromolecular chains size. According to the methodology, the chitin and chitosan yield was around 33 % and 23 % (dry weight), respectively. The materials characterization was by FTIR spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. In addition, the analysis of chitosan samples were by proximal test, viscometric -average molecular weight, and deacetylation degree. The products exhibited chemical structure and physicochemical properties comparable to biopolymers isolated from similar sources reported in the literature. Chitosan showed a 15.87 % degree of acetylation (by 1H-NMR analysis) and a Mv=170kDa. The results show the chitinous waste from the Sea of Cortez coast, as a promising chitosan source for several applications in the region.

Resumen Este trabajo describe el aislamiento de quitina y optimización del proceso de desacetilación para obtener quitosana a partir del exoesqueleto de camarón café (Farfan-tepenaeus californiensis), recolectado del Golfo de California. La extracción de quitina se realizó a través de un proceso consecutivo de desmineralización y desproteinización. Por otro lado, la desacetilación se llevó a cabo por hidrólisis alcalina, y el producto se purificó utilizando una serie de filtros de membrana para homogeneizar el tamaño de las cadenas macromoleculares. De acuerdo con la metodología seguida, se obtuvo rendimiento del 33 % y 23 % (base seca) de quitina y quitosana, respectivamente. Los materiales se caracterizaron por espectroscopía FTIR y análisis termogravimétrico. Asimismo, se evaluó el análisis proximal, peso molecular viscosimétrico y el grado de acetilación en la muestra de quitosana. Los productos obtenidos presentaron estructura química y propiedades fisicoquímicas comparables con los biopolímeros aislados por métodos similares reportados en la literatura. Se encontró que la quitosana pura tiene un grado de acetilación de 15.87 % (estimado por 1H-RMN) y Mv=170kDa. Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que los desechos quitinosos del Mar de Cortés pueden considerarse como una fuente importante para la preparación de quitosana y utilizarse para diversas aplicaciones de la región.

ABSTRACT The use of reverse osmosis for water treatment has been very successful in projects where it has been used, achieving excellent quality water. In the present work, the evaluation of the replacement of cartridge filters with mesh filters in the reverse osmosis water treatment plant of a rum factory was carried out. Through the use of mesh filters, it was possible to obtain treated water with values of electrical conductivity and count of microorganisms below that established in Cuban standards, while the osmotic pressure reached an average value of 7.98 atm. The energy losses due to the passage of the fluid through the proposed filter were also reported, which are small due to the low velocities of the fluid through the channels; as well as the values of the filtering volumes as a function of time. The design and operation parameters of the proposed mesh filter were defined. Finally, the values of the hydraulic resistance constants of the filtering membrane (C) and the one that takes into account the procedure regime and the physical-chemical properties of the sediment and liquid (K) were experimentally determined, which had values of 3.38x105 m3/m2 and 2.00x104 m2/s, respectively. It is concluded that the proposed mesh filters can be used satisfactorily in the filtration stage evaluated, and thus replace the cartridge filters currently used.

RESUMEN El empleo de la osmosis inversa para el tratamiento de agua ha tenido un gran éxito en los proyectos donde se ha utilizado, consiguiéndose un agua de excelente calidad. En el presente trabajo se efectuó la evaluación de la sustitución de filtros de cartucho por filtros de malla en la planta de tratamiento de agua por osmosis inversa de una fábrica de ron. Mediante la utilización de los filtros de malla se logró obtener un agua tratada con valores de conductividad eléctrica y de conteo de microorganismos por debajo de lo establecido en las normas cubanas, mientras que la presión osmótica alcanzó un valor medio de 7,98 atm. Se reportaron además las pérdidas de energía debido al paso del fluido por el filtro propuesto, las cuales son pequeñas debido a las bajas velocidades del fluido por los canales; así como también los valores de los volúmenes de filtrado en función del tiempo. Se definieron los parámetros de diseño y operación del filtro de mallas propuesto. Por último, se determinaron experimentalmente los valores de las constantes de resistencia hidráulica de la membrana filtrante (C) y aquella que toma en cuenta el régimen del procedimiento y las propiedades físico-químicas del sedimento y del líquido (K), las cuales tuvieron valores de 3,38x105 m3/m2 y 2,00x104 m2/s, respectivamente. Se concluye que los filtros de malla propuestos pueden ser empleados satisfactoriamente en la etapa de filtración evaluada, y de esta manera sustituir a los filtros de cartucho actualmente empleados.

Abstract The antibacterial activity of phillyrin on Escherichia coli ATCC8739 (E. coli ATCC8739), Bacillus subtilis BS08, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538 (S. aureus ATCC6538) and Salmonella ATCC14028 was determined by filter paper method. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the four tested bacteria was investigated by plate coating method to evaluate antibacterial ability. The antibacterial mechanism was further investigated by measuring growth curve, electric conductivity, nucleic acid content, Na+/K+-ATPase activity and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The results indicated that phillyrin had antibacterial effects and the MICs against Escherichia coli ATCC8739, Bacillus subtilis BS08, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538 and Salmonella ATCC14028 were 2.15, 3.16, 3.02 and 3.40 μg/mL respectively, and the antibacterial effect on Escherichia coli ATCC 8739 was more significant (p< 0.05) than that on other bacteria. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) indicated that phillyrin destroyed the morphology of the cells and the cells ruptured. The leakage of intracellular substances led to an increase in nucleic acid content and an increase in electric conductivity in the bacterial suspension; SDS-PAGE analysis indicated that phillyrin could inhibit protein synthesis; in addition, phillyrin could reduce Na+/K+-ATPase activity. Therefore, phillyrin had obvious antibacterial ability and inhibited the expression of bacterial proteins by destroying the cell membrane structure, resulting in the death of the cells.

ABSTRACT To reduce the shortcomings of existing filtering assistance, the talc was modified by a two-step method. In the first step, the talcum powder was heated by microwave in the acid solution. In the second step, the talcum powder was stirred with Hexadecyl Trimethyl Ammonium Bromide (HTAB) solution for optimum time under an optimum temperature. The optimum temperature, time and amount of HTAB were investigated by the batch membrane filtration experiments of kaolin suspension. The filtering effects of the new talc filter aid were evaluated with the filtration rate and moisture content in filter cake. The results showed that the optimum conditions were: the amount of 0.05 mmol/L HTAB was 100 ml, the modified temperature was 80℃ and the modified time was 60 min. When the filtrate was accumulated to 25 ml, the filtration time was 13.21 s shorter than others. The membrane flux of microfiltration was the largest (0.024 L/m2·s) when new talc filter aid was added into the kaolin suspension. The talc powder was characterized by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction, which made the experimental results more obvious. Characterization results indicated that the hydrophobicity of the talc filter aid was excellent because microwave-assisted acidification talcum powder could absorb the cationic surfactants by electrostatic interactions. Finally, by comparing talc filtration assist with diatomite filtration assist, it is concluded that the filtration performance of talc filtration assist kaolin suspension is superior to other materials.

Resumen Los refrescos elaborados artesanalmente a base de frutas amazónicas y comercializados en Cobija, Bolivia son consumidos por la mayoría de la población, por su sabor y acción refrescante natural, además son de bajo costo. Es importante conocer la calidad de este alimento por no ser pasteurizado, lo cual nos motivó a realizar esta investigación. Se realizó la evaluación de las condiciones higiénicas del personal y de los establecimientos de expendio, mediante el uso de un cuestionario de observación. Según los resultados obtenidos, el 69% de los establecimientos no cumple con las Buenas Prácticas de Higiene de Elaboración y Manipulación. Se realizaron muéstreos de cada uno de los establecimientos de expendio durante 3 semanas, completándose un total de 78 muestras de aguas y refrescos de frutas. Posteriormente, se determinó el pH de cada muestra. Se observó que los aguas de frutas presentan valores que están por debajo de los límites que establece la Norma Boliviana NB 512 (6,5 a 9,5). Los refrescos de frutas presentan valores que están dentro del límite permitido por la Norma Técnica Peruana NTP 203.110-111, que establece que el pH debe ser inferior a 4,50. La presencia de microorganismos indicadores de contaminación en aguas y refrescos de frutas se determinó mediante el método de la Membrana Filtrante (UFC) NB 31003. Los resultados obtenidos en muestras de aguas y refrescos de frutas, indicaron que estaban contaminadas con la presencia en un 92% de coliformes totales, 69% de Escherichia coli y 81% de Hongos y levaduras excediendo los límites permitidos por la NB 512 y NTP 203.110-111

Abstract Handcrañed son drinks made from Amazonian fruits and commercialized in Cobija, Bolivia have a high consumption index among local inhabitants, this, due to their flavor and natural refreshing features and their low-cost. To the best of our knowledge, to the present date, there are not reports on the microbiological quality of such drinks, which are not usually pasteurized. The survey among the personnel and the retail establishments on the hygienic conditions of elaboration was carried out through the use of an observation questionnaire. The results showed that 69% of the establishments did not comply with Good Hygienic Manufacturing and Handling Practices. Samples of each of the retail establishments were carried out during 3 weeks, completing a total of 78 samples of water and fruit drinks. Subsequently, the pH of each sample was determined. It was observed that the fruit waters present valúes that are below the limits established by the Bolivian Norm NB 512 (6.5 to 9.5). Fruit soft drinks have valúes that are within the limit allowed by the Peruvian Technical Standard NTP 203.110-111, which establishes that the pH must be less than 4.50. The contamination by microorganisms of water and fruit soft drinks was determined by using the Filter Membrane (CFU) method NB 31003. The results obtained in samples of water and fruit soft drinks indicated that they were contaminated with the presence of 92 % of total coliforms, 69% of Escherichia coli and 81% of fiingi and yeasts, exceeding the limits allowed by NB 512 and NTP 203.110-111

RESUMO Matéria orgânica natural (MON) é uma complexa matriz de compostos orgânicos originados de fontes naturais que estão presentes em corpos hídricos. A MON é comprovada precursora de subprodutos da desinfecção (SPD), além de afetar processos de tratamento de água, tais como a coagulação, a desinfecção, a oxidação, a adsorção em carvão ativado e a filtração em membranas. Por essas razões, a redução da MON no tratamento de água para consumo humano é importante. Vários métodos são usados para caracterizar e quantificar a MON, tais como adsorção em resinas e parâmetros de massa. Carbono orgânico total (COT), carbono orgânico dissolvido (COD), absorção na região do ultravioleta (UV254) e absorbância específica de luz ultravioleta (AEUV) são usualmente utilizados como parâmetros de massa. O fracionamento rápido é uma técnica que usa diferentes resinas para separar frações da MON. Nesse contexto, este trabalho teve como objetivo geral caracterizar a matéria orgânica dissolvida (MOD) em processos de tratamento de água para consumo humano usando o método do fracionamento rápido e os parâmetros COD, UV254 e AEUV. Também foram analisados as variáveis turbidez, cor, pH e alcalinidade. Foram avaliados os efeitos dos processos de coagulação, sedimentação, filtração e adsorção em carvão ativado nas frações que formam a MON. Ácidos muito hidrofóbicos (AMH) constituíram a principal fração da MOD na água estudada, havendo redução de 89% entre a água bruta e o efluente do filtro de carvão ativado granular (CAG). A segunda fração predominante foi de ácidos levemente hidrofóbicos (ALH), reduzidos em 83% ao longo do tratamento. Na água bruta, as frações de matérias hidrofílicas carregadas (MHC) e de neutras (MHN) apresentaram concentrações de 0,11 mg L-1 e 0,04 mg L-1, não sendo removidas pelo tratamento.

ABSTRACT Natural organic matter (NOM) is a complex matrix of organic compounds originated from natural sources that are present in water bodies. NOM is a known precursor of disinfection by-products (DBP) and affects drinking water treatment processes such as coagulation, disinfection, oxidation, activated carbon adsorption, and membrane filtration. For these reasons, the reduction of NOM in water treatment is important. Several methods are used to characterize and quantify NOM, such as resin adsorption and mass parameters. The latter include total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved organic carbon (DOC), ultraviolet absorption at 254 nm (UV254), and specific UV absorption (SUVA). Rapid fractionation is a technique that uses different resins to separate NOM fractions. The objective of this study was to characterize dissolved organic matter (DOM) in drinking water treatment processes using rapid fractionation and the parameters DOC, UV254, and SUVA. Turbidity, color, pH, and alkalinity were also analyzed. The effects of coagulation, sedimentation, filtration, and adsorption processes on the fractions forming the NOM were evaluated. Very hydrophobic acids (VHA) constituted the main fraction of DOM in the studied water, with a reduction of 89% between raw water and granular activated carbon filter (GAC) respect to raw water. The second predominant fraction consisted of slightly hydrophobic acids (SHA), reduced by 83% throughout the treatment processes. In raw water, the hydrophilic charged (MHC) and neutral (MHN) fractions showed concentrations of 0.11 and 0.04 mg L-1, which were not removed during treatment.

ABSTRACT The study aimed to evaluate the presence of bacteria (total and thermotolerant coliforms) in the treatment of water using Class C Ultraviolet Radiation (UV-C), the research was carried out in the Quality Control Laboratory of the Treatment Plant of Potable Water of the EPS, EMSA Puno, because current regulations require that total and thermotolerant coliform readings in drinking water should be 0 CFU / 100 ml, with UV-C radiation being an alternative for the decrease in Chlorine use. For what was experimented with a dose of 0,00176 W/cm2/s of UV-C radiation with a dominant wavelength of 254 nm, the experimental water samples were subjected to 1, 2, 3, and 4 seconds of exposure to the mentioned radiation. For the determination of the bacterial presence in water (total and thermotolerant coliforms), the Membrane Filter methodology was chosen, the results obtained for the total coliform count were readings on average of 200, 165, 59 and 0 CFU/100 ml and for the count of thermotolerant coliforms average readings of 4, 3, 1 and 0 CFU/100 ml. Concluding that, for the total inactivation of the total coliforms and thermotolerant coliforms present in the water samples, a minimum time of 4 s of exposure to UV-C radiation was required.

RESUMEN El estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar la presencia de bacterias (coliformes totales y termotolerantes) en el tratamiento del agua haciendo uso de Radiación Ultravioleta clase C (UV-C), se realizó la investigación en el Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de la Planta de Tratamiento de Agua Potable de la EPS, EMSA Puno, debido a que las normas vigentes exigen que las lecturas de coliformes totales y termotolerantes en el agua potable deben de ser 0 UFC/100 ml, siendo la radiación UV-C una alternativa para la disminución en el uso del Cloro. Por lo que se experimentó con una dosis de 0,00176 W/cm2/s de radiación UV-C con una longitud de onda dominante de 254 nm, las muestras de agua experimentales fueron sometidas a 1, 2, 3, y 4 segundos de exposición a la mencionada radiación. Para la determinación de la presencia bacteriana en agua (coliformes totales y termotolerantes), se optó por la metodología de Filtro de Membrana, los resultados obtenidos para el conteo de coliformes totales fueron lecturas en promedio de 200, 165, 59 y 0 UFC/100 ml y para el conteo de coliformes termotolerantes lecturas promedio de 4, 3, 1 y 0 UFC/100 ml. Concluyendo que, para la inactivación total de los coliformes totales y coliformes termotolerantes presentes en las muestras de agua, se requirió un tiempo mínimo de 4 s de exposición a la radiación UV-C.

RESUMO O planeta terra é constituído por uma grande porcentagem de água, sendo apenas 3% doce. Dessa água doce, aproximadamente 0,3% está disponível para ser utilizada pelos habitantes do planeta. Para a avaliação das condições sanitárias da água, utilizam-se bactérias do grupo coliforme, cuja presença no ambiente aquático configura um potencial indicativo de poluição, bem como do risco da presença de organismos patogênicos. O Brasil possui a maior disponibilidade hídrica do planeta, porém, em várias regiões do país, muitos rios encontram-se poluídos. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste estudo foi realizar a análise microbiológica da água do Rio Bacacheri, localizado na cidade de Curitiba (PR) e incluído na seção das águas doces destinadas à preservação do equilíbrio natural das comunidades aquáticas, a fim de determinar o nível de poluição em cinco pontos pré-determinados, acompanhando o crescimento de colônias de coliformes fecais e coliformes totais através da técnica de membrana filtrante. Os resultados permitem verificar que, em todos os pontos de coleta, foi observada a proliferação de coliformes fecais e totais em valores acima do limite proposto pela resolução CONAMA nº 357/2005. Adicionalmente, nota-se que os pontos #P1, #P2 e #P5 são os mais afetados, enquanto #P3 e #P4 parecem ser os menos impactados, provavelmente pela presença de mata ciliar, bem como pela canalização de margens e fundo do rio.

ABSTRACT The planet Earth is made up of a large percentage of water, being only 3% of fresh water. Of this fresh water, approximately 0.3% is available to be used by the planet’s inhabitants. For the evaluation of the health conditions of the water, bacteria of the coliform group are use, being their presence in the aquatic environment a potential indicative of pollution, as well as of the risk for presence of pathogenic organisms. Brazil has the highest availability of water on the planet, but in several parts of the country, many rivers are polluted. The objective of the study was to perform the microbiological analysis of the Bacacheri River water, located in the city of Curitiba, Paraná, which is included in the section of fresh waters, aimed at preserving the natural balance of aquatic communities, in order to determine the level of pollution in five pre-determined points, following the growth of colonies of fecal coliforms and total coliforms, through the membrane filter technique. The results show proliferation of fecal and total coliforms in values above the limit proposed by CONAMA no. 357/2005 Brazilian determination in all harvest points observed. In addition, points # P1, # P2, and # P5 are the most affected ones, whereas points # P3 and # P4 seem to be less affected, probably due to the presence of ciliary forest, as well as the channeling of the banks and the bottom of the river.

Resumo Nas comunidades de Manguinhos ações de saneamento são escassas, por isso a avaliação das condições sanitárias das águas dos rios e do peridomicílio que perpassa as comunidades permite o diagnóstico do risco e da precariedade das situações de saneamento. Este estudo avaliou os níveis colimétricos (coliformes totais e Escherichia coli) pelo método de membrana filtrante, e parasitológicos (pelos métodos de Lutz e Baermann-Moraes adaptados) nas águas e no solo dos rios Faria-Timbó, Jacaré e Canal do Cunha que passam pelas comunidades do Território de Manguinhos, RJ, de acordo com os padrões estabelecidos em legislações brasileira. Em todos os pontos dos rios, a água estava imprópria com nível médio de Escherichia coli em 3.800 vezes maior do que o padrão estabelecido na Resolução CONAMA nº 274/2000. Sendo observadas larvas, ovos de helmintos e oocistos de protozoários. As amostras de solo também se apresentavam impróprias, com nível médio de coliformes totais em 77.000 vezes maior do que o aceitável pela Resolução SMAC nº 468/2010, e nível de Escherichia coli em 53.000 vezes maior do que o padrão da legislação. Contudo, somente em um ponto de amostra de solo foram encontrados ovos de helmintos. Conclui-se que os reflexos da carência de saneamento nesta localidade refletem os elevados níveis colimétricos e parasitológicos das águas dos rios e no solo peridomiciliar, sendo necessária uma urgente modificação no paradigma ambiental brasileiro, que utiliza seus corpos hídricos como veículo de disposição de esgoto.

Abstract Sanitation actions are rare in the communities of Manguinhos, so evaluation of the sanitary conditions of the river waters and the peridomestic soils of the communities allows the diagnosis of the risk of contamination. This study evaluated coliform levels (total coliforms and Escherichia coli) by the filter membrane method, and parasitological (by adapted Lutz and Baermann-Moraes methods) in the waters and soils of the Faria-Timbó, Jacaré and Canal do Cunha Rivers that pass through the communities of the Territory of Manguinhos, RJ, according to the standards established in Brazilian legislation. In all points of the rivers, the water was unfit, with an average level of Escherichia coli 3,800 times higher than that standardized in CONAMA Resolution No. 274/2000. Larvae, helminths eggs and protozoan oocysts were observed. Soil samples were also unfit, with mean total coliform level 77,000 times higher than that considered acceptable by SMAC Resolution 468/2010. The Escherichia coli average level was 53,000 times higher than that permitted by the legislation. However, helminths eggs were found in only one soil sample. It was concluded that the lack of sanitation in this locality results in the high coliform and parasitological levels of the river waters and in the peridomestic soils, and that immediate modifications are needed to the Brazilian environmental paradigm, which uses its water bodies as sewage disposal ditches.

RESUMO Neste trabalho, membranas de polisulfona com adição de 3% em massa de argila montmorilonita natural, sódica e lítio, oriundas do estado da Paraíba, foram desenvolvidas pelo método de inversão de fases. Utilizou-se o N-metil-2 pirrolidona (NMP) como solvente na proporção de 80% e 20% de sólido. As argilas e membranas foram caracterizadas por difração de raios-X (DRX) e espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR). Além disso, as membranas foram estudadas por microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV), porosidade e permeação a vapor d'água, a fim de se estudar seu comportamento para aplicação na separação de gás. Os DRX das argilas evidenciaram bandas de cristalinidade características de montmorilonita. Os difratogramas de DRX das membranas indicaram que possivelmente ocorreu a formação de uma estrutura intercalado/esfoliado devido à ausência das bandas referentes às argilas. Por FTIR das argilas foi visualizado as mesmas bandas características da montmorilonita, diferenciando pelos cátions que foram trocados na estrutura. O FTIR das membranas apresentaram bandas características da polisulfona, e para os híbridos estas bandas podem ser também das argilas por apresentarem as mesmas faixas de número de onda. As fotomicrografias de MEV evidenciaram a formação de uma camada densa na pele filtrante e na parte inferior foi observada uma estrutura de fingers que pode ter influenciado na permeação. O ensaio de porosidade indicou que a presença de argila na membrana reduziu a quantidade de poros e o ensaio de permeação a vapor d'água ilustrou que houve uma diminuição da permeação com a adição de argila em comparação com a membrana de polisulfona pura. A membrana aditivada de argila com lítio apresentou uma redução da permeação a vapor d'água em 53%, indicando melhores propriedades de barreira.

ABSTRACT In the present study, polysulfone membranes with addition of 3% by mass of natural montmorillonite clay, sodic and lithium, from the state of Paraiba, were developed by phase inversion method. The N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) was used as a solvent in the proportion of 80% and 20% solid. The clays and membranes were also characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). In addition, the membranes were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM), porosity and vapor permeation of water in order to study their behavior in gas separation applications. The XRD of the clays showed peaks of crystallinity characteristic of montmorillonite. The XRD diffractograms of membranes showed that it has possibly occurred the formation of a structure intercalated/exfoliated due to the absence of peaks related clays. By FTIR of the clays were visualized the same bands characteristic of the montmorillonite, differentiating by the cations that were changed in the structure. The FTIR of the membranes presented bands characteristic of polysulfone, and for the hybrids these bands can also be of the clays because they present the same ranges of wave number. The SEM photomicrographs showed the formation of a dense layer on the filter skin and on the inferior surface was observed fingers structures that may have influenced the permeation. The porosity test indicated that the presence of clay in membranes reduced the amount of pores and the permeation test using water vapor showed that there was a decrease in the permeation by adding clay in comparison to pure polysulfone membrane. The membrane with additives of clay with lithium presented a 53% reduction of gas permeation, indicating better barrier properties.

RESUMO Neste trabalho, foram obtidas membranas híbridas de poliamida6 (PA6) com 1%, 3% e 5% em peso de argila na forma de filmes finos por meio da técnica de inversão de fases. As membranas híbridas foram caracterizadas por difração de raios-X (XRD), espectroscopia na região do infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM), porosimetria por intrusão de mercúrio (MIP) e ângulo de contato. Por meio do XRD, foi possível perceber que as membranas híbridas sugerem uma estrutura esfoliada e/ou parcialmente esfoliada. Os espectros de FTIR das membranas híbridas permaneceram inalterados, exceto pelo aumento na intensidade dos picos em 800, 1033 e 1095 cm−1 provavelmente referente à camada octaédrica e a vibração do estiramento do grupo Si- O-Si da argila. Por DSC foi observado que praticamente não houve alteração da temperatura de fusão cristalina das membranas híbridas em relação à membrana de PA6 pura. A partir das fotomicrografias obtidas por SEM, foi ilustrada a obtenção de membranas microporosas assimétricas com a formação de uma pele filtrante e um suporte poroso ao longo da seção transversal. Além disso, a adição da argila provocou um aumento na quantidade e distribuição uniforme dos poros existentes na superfície e seção transversal destas membranas. Por MIP, observou-se que a presença da argila nas membranas ocasionou um aumento nos diâmetros médio dos poros. Por meio do ângulo de contato, verificou-se que as membranas híbridas apresentaram maiores ângulos de contato para a água destilada quando comparadas aos ângulos obtidos com o óleo sintético. As membranas híbridas obtidas apresentaram uma morfologia com porosidade adequada para aplicação em processos de microfiltração.

ABSTRACT In this research, hybrid membranes of polyamide6 (PA6) with 1%, 3% and 5% of clay were obtained in the form of thin films by phase inversion technique. The hybrid membranes were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) and contact angle. By XRD, it was revealed that the hybrid membranes suggest an exfoliated and/or partially exfoliated structure. The FTIR spectra of hybrid membranes remained unchanged, except for the increase in the intensity of the peaks at 800, 1033 and 1095 cm−1 probably related to the octahedral layer and the stretching vibration of Si-O-Si clay group. By DSC, it was observed that there was almost no change in the crystalline melting temperature of the hybrid membrane to the pure PA6 membrane. By SEM photomicrographs, it was illustrated the obtaining of asymmetric microporous membranes with the formation of a filter skin and a porous support along the cross-section. Furthermore, the addition of the clay led to an increase in the amount and in the uniform distribution of the pores at the surface and cross section of these membranes. For MIP, it was observed that the presence of clay in the membrane caused an increase in average pore diameters. By means of the contact angle, it was found that the hybrid membranes showed higher contact angles for distilled water as compared to the angles obtained from the synthetic oil. The obtained hybrid membranes showed morphology with adequate porosity for use in microfiltration processes.

RESUMO: Em Santos, litoral de São Paulo, a avaliação da qualidade microbiológica da água das praias é realizada pela prefeitura e pela Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo (CETESB). Entretanto, a mesma atenção não é direcionada à areia das praias. A areia representa um potencial vetor de contaminação e pode constituir reservatório de microrganismos patogênicos. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a qualidade microbiológica da areia das praias de Santos, São Paulo. Utilizou-se a técnica das membranas filtrantes para os grupos de coliformes fecais (Escherichia coli ) e enterococos. As amostras foram coletadas em sete pontos das praias de Santos. Os ensaios foram realizados mensalmente durante 8 meses e os resultados, expressos em unidades formadoras de colônias (UFC) de bactérias por 100 g de areia, variaram de 40.000 a 2.700.000 para E. coli e de não detectado a 95.000 para enterococos, encontrando-se acima dos valores orientadores existentes em âmbito nacional (3.800 UFC.100g-1 - Rio de Janeiro) e internacional (100.000 UFC.100g-1 - Portugal). O contato com areia contaminada pode causar diversas doenças, comprometendo a qualidade de vida da população. Torna-se importante a realização de estudos baseados em evidências epidemiológicas de exposição e análises de risco, para se estabelecer padrões de qualidade e políticas públicas para monitoramento e gerenciamento da qualidade sanitária da areia das praias do litoral de São Paulo.

ABSTRACT: In Santos, coast of São Paulo State, the evaluation of the microbiological quality of the beach water is performed weekly by the Companhia Ambiental do Estado de São Paulo (CETESB), the environmental agency of the São Paulo state government. However, the same attention is not given to the sand of the beaches. Sand represents a potential contamination vector and may constitute a reservoir of pathogenic microorganisms. This study aimed to evaluate the microbiological quality of sands from Santos beaches throughout the quantification of bacteria colonies from the groups of fecal coliforms (Escherichia coli ) and Enterococcus, using the membrane filter technique. The analyses were executed monthly during 8 months and the results, expressed in bacteria colony forming units (CFU) per 100 grams of sand, vary from 40,000 to 2,700,000 for E. coli and from not detected to 95,000 for Enterococcus, being above the currently guideline values in national (3,800 CFU.100g-1) and international (100,000 CFU.100g-1) levels. It's important to mention that these guideline values were based on results from microbiological analyses of sands collected from beaches that are distant from large urban areas. The contact with contaminated sand may cause diseases, provoking impacts on the population's life quality. There is a need for further studies based on epidemiological evidences of exposure and risk analysis, in order to establish quality standards and public policies aimed to monitoring and managing the sanitary quality of sands from São Paulo's coast beaches.