ABSTRACT. The essay addresses the contemporary problem of the sources of obligation in light of the development of law that has given rise to obligations of protection-subspecie of obligations in the classical sense-. In particular, the article 1173 of the Italian Civil Code, by providing that sources of obligations can also be facts or acts capable of producing them in accordance with the legal system, opens itself to a progressive typicality: the judge, although he cannot create atypical obligations in the strict sense, can recognize new ones by applying general principles and rules of the legal system. From this perspective, pre-contractual liability based on the obligation of good faith and other provisions of the civil code establish a principle of protection of reliance, especially when it comes to professional activities. Hence an important innovation that adds to contracts and illicit acts the reliance arising from qualified social contacts, as sources of a liability that can be called relational.

RESUMEN. El ensayo aborda el problema contemporáneo de las fuentes de la obligación a la luz del desarrollo del derecho que ha hecho emerger las obligaciones de protección -subespecie de obligaciones en el sentido clásico-. En particular, el artículo 1173 del Código Civil italiano, al prever como fuentes de las obligaciones los hechos o actos capaces de producirlas de conformidad con el ordenamiento jurídico, se abre a una tipicidad progresiva: el juez, aunque no pueda crear obligaciones atípicas en sentido estricto, puede reconocer otras nuevas aplicando principios y normas generales del ordenamiento jurídico. Desde esta perspectiva, la responsabilidad precontractual basada en la obligación de buena fe y otras disposiciones del código civil establecen un principio de protección de la confianza especialmente cuando se trata de actividades profesionales. De ahí una importante innovación que suma a los contratos y hechos ilícitos la confianza surgida de contactos sociales calificados, como fuentes de una responsabilidad que puede denominarse relacional.

RESUMEN La implementación de políticas de ciberseguridad es esencial para que los gobiernos protejan su información, salvaguarden la seguridad nacional, cumplan con sus obligaciones legales y normativas, y garanticen la prestación segura y continua de servicios públicos. La Política de Ciberseguridad de Ecuador está diseñada para proteger los activos digitales y la infraestructura crítica del país, no obstante, existen múltiples manifestaciones de violaciones en cuanto a ciberseguridad. En este contexto, se hace necesario valorar la efectividad de las políticas implementadas para garantizar la seguridad cibernética en Ecuador, en consonancia con la evolución tecnológica y las amenazas emergentes. De forma mayoritaria el sistema es valorado como poco eficaz. Se identifican como brechas fundamentales la falta de coordinación entre instituciones gubernamentales y organismos encargados de la seguridad informática. Se requiere actualizar la legislación y la elaboración de guías de procedimiento que brinden orientación práctica a los operadores judiciales en el manejo de casos. El país debe continuar fortaleciendo su política nacional de ciberseguridad, promoviendo la colaboración público- privada, la innovación y la adopción de buenas prácticas de seguridad cibernética que faciliten la protección de la información sensible y la mitigación de riesgos cibernéticos.

ABSTRACT Implementing cybersecurity policies is essential for governments to protect their information, safeguard national security, meet their legal and regulatory obligations, and ensure the safe and continuous delivery of public services. Ecuador's Cybersecurity Policy is designed to protect the country's digital assets and critical infrastructure, however there are multiple manifestations of cybersecurity violations. In this context, it is necessary to assess the effectiveness of the policies implemented to guarantee cybersecurity in Ecuador, in line with technological evolution and emerging threats. For the most part, the system is considered ineffective. The lack of coordination between government institutions and organizations in charge of computer security is identified as fundamental gaps. It is necessary to update the legislation and the development of procedural guides that provide practical guidance to judicial operators in the management of cases. The country must continue to strengthen its national cybersecurity policy, promoting public-private collaboration, innovation and the adoption of good cybersecurity practices that facilitate the protection of sensitive information and the mitigation of cyber risks.

Resumen La investigación se centró en el análisis del principio jurídico de la caducidad de la boleta de apremio en el contexto de las obligaciones alimentarias, examinando su impacto en los derechos de los menores. Se implementó un sistema para la gestión de la información relacionada, que facilitó el seguimiento de casos y la recopilación de datos que reflejaron la evolución de una propuesta de reforma legal. A través del análisis de sentencias, se identificaron patrones en la interpretación judicial de la caducidad y sus implicaciones para el cumplimiento de las pensiones alimenticias. Asimismo, se diagnosticó que la caducidad puede afectar negativamente los derechos alimentarios de los menores, evidenciando la necesidad de reformas que fortalezcan la protección de estos derechos. Se propuso modificar el numeral 3 del artículo 139 del Código Orgánico General de Procesos (COGEP) para extender la validez de la boleta de apremio personal hasta el cumplimiento efectivo de la obligación alimentaria, priorizando el interés superior del menor. En la validación de la propuesta mediante el criterio de expertos fue validada como muy pertinente, permitiendo ajustar la reforma para asegurar su efectividad y alineación con las necesidades de los beneficiarios. La implementación del sistema informático que sirvió de soporte a la propuesta de reforma, resultó ser una herramienta fundamental para la sostenibilidad de la reforma propuesta.

Abstract The research focused on the analysis of the legal principle of the expiration of the enforcement order in the context of child support obligations, examining its impact on the rights of minors. A system for the management of related information was implemented, which facilitated the monitoring of cases and the collection of data that reflected the evolution of a legal reform proposal. Through the analysis of sentences, patterns were identified in the judicial interpretation of the expiration and its implications for the fulfillment of child support payments. Likewise, it was diagnosed that the expiration can negatively affect the child support rights, evidencing the need for reforms that strengthen the protection of these rights. It was proposed to modify numeral 3 of article 139 of the General Organic Code of Processes (COGEP) to extend the validity of the personal enforcement order until the effective fulfillment of the child support obligation, prioritizing the best interest of the minor. In the validation of the proposal by expert criteria, it was found to be highly relevant, allowing the reform to be adjusted to ensure its effectiveness and alignment with the needs of the beneficiaries. The implementation of the computer system that supported the reform proposal turned out to be a fundamental tool for the sustainability of the proposed reform.

Resumo Discussões críticas sobre a tese do Antropoceno apontam para a necessidade de uma reconfiguração radical da política e do direito. Propomos que possíveis caminhos para essa reconfiguração estão presentes nas práticas de defesa do território e modo de vida do povo Munduruku, especialmente no processo de autodemarcação do território Daje Kapap Eypi, no médio curso do rio Tapajós, iniciado em resposta à paralisação da demarcação da terra pelo governo brasileiro e ao avanço do licenciamento da Usina Hidrelétrica São Luiz do Tapajós. A partir de uma análise dos conflitos em torno deste território, investigamos o embate entre duas lógicas jurídicas antagônicas: de um lado, um direito do Antropoceno, que reforça a separação entre natureza e sociedade, rejeita modos existência que fogem a essa dualidade, e aprofunda o extrativismo predatório; e, de outro, um direito cosmopolítico dos Munduruku, no qual direitos e obrigações são constituídos por redes de entidades humanas e mais-que-humanas, por práticas autônomas de tomada de decisão e pela experiência situada e viva do território. Argumentamos que o direito cosmopolítico dos Munduruku tem constituído territórios capazes de frear o avanço do extrativismo e da destruição ecológica, e deve ser entendido como uma prática jurídica que sustenta e repara as condições de vida num planeta ferido. Eypi Tapajós antagônicas lado sociedade dualidade predatório outro maisquehumanas, maisquehumanas mais humanas, mais-que-humanas ecológica ferido

Abstract Critical discussions about the Anthropocene point to the necessity of a radical recasting of politics and law. We propose that potential paths for this recasting can be found in the practices through which the Munduruku defend their territory and way of life, particularly in the self-demarcation of the Daje Kapap Eypi territory, initiated in 2014 in response to the Brazilian government's halt on the land demarcation process and the advancement of the São Luiz do Tapajós Hydroelectric Dam licensing. Through an analysis of conflicts surrounding this territory, we investigate the clash between two antagonistic legal logics: on one side, a law of the Anthropocene, which reinforces the separation between nature and society, rejects modes of existence that transcend this duality, and deepens predatory extractivism; and on the other, a cosmopolitical law of the Munduruku, in which rights and obligations are constituted by networks of human and more-than-human entities, autonomous decision-making practices, and the situated experience of territory. We argue that the cosmopolitical legal practice of the Munduruku has established territories capable of halting the advance of extractivism and ecological destruction and should be understood as a legal practice that sustains and repairs the conditions of life on a damaged planet. selfdemarcation self 201 governments government s licensing logics side society duality other morethanhuman more than entities decisionmaking decision making planet 20 2

Resumen El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar cómo la percepción de equidad y justicia influye en la disposición de los responsables subsidiarios para cumplir su deber alimentario tras la muerte de los progenitores, así como evaluar la eficacia y claridad de las leyes procesales relacionadas en Ecuador. A través de una metodología mixta, se llevó a cabo una encuesta dirigida a especialistas jurídicos en derecho familiar, lo que permitió recopilar información valiosa sobre el contexto actual y las dificultades que enfrentan las familias en situación de vulnerabilidad. Uno de los resultados más relevantes fue la implementación de un sistema informático diseñado para la gestión efectiva de casos de responsables subsidiarios de alimentos para menores, lo cual se propone como una solución innovadora que puede mejorar la administración de justicia en este ámbito. Además, se elaboró una propuesta de reforma al Artículo [innumerado 5... del Código de la Niñez y Adolescencia], que busca actualizar y fortalecer las condiciones bajo las cuales los obligados a la prestación de alimentos deben operar, garantizando así una mayor protección a los derechos de los menores. La validación de esta propuesta fue realizada mediante el criterio de expertos, quienes aportaron observaciones y sugerencias que contribuyeron a la robustez de la reforma planteada. Los resultados de este proceso de validación, junto con la percepción de equidad y justicia analizada, indican que es fundamental tener en cuenta la realidad social y económica de los responsables subsidiarios para asegurar el cumplimiento efectivo de las obligaciones alimentarias. La investigación reveló la necesidad de transformar el marco normativo y las prácticas procesales en el ámbito del derecho familiar, a fin de garantizar el interés superior de los niños y niñas en Ecuador. Se hace evidente que la percepción de justicia y equidad entre los responsables subsidiarios es un factor determinante para cumplir con sus deberes alimentarios, lo que a su vez requiere de un enfoque legal más claro y eficiente.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to analyze how the perception of equity and justice influences the willingness of those responsible for subsidiarily paying alimony after the death of their parents, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness and clarity of the related procedural laws in Ecuador. Using a mixed methodology, a survey was conducted for legal specialists in family law, which allowed the collection of valuable information on the current context and the difficulties faced by families in vulnerable situations. One of the most relevant results was the implementation of a computer system designed for the effective management of cases of those responsible for subsidiarily paying alimony to minors, which is proposed as an innovative solution that can improve the administration of justice in this area. In addition, a proposal was drawn up to reform Article [unnumbered 5... of the Code of Children and Adolescents], which seeks to update and strengthen the conditions under which those obliged to provide alimony must operate, thus guaranteeing greater protection of the rights of minors. The validation of this proposal was carried out through the criteria of experts, who provided observations and suggestions that contributed to the robustness of the proposed reform. The results of this validation process, together with the perception of equity and justice analyzed, indicate that it is essential to take into account the social and economic reality of those responsible for subsidiaries to ensure the effective fulfillment of alimony obligations. The research revealed the need to transform the regulatory framework and procedural practices in the field of family law, in order to guarantee the best interests of children in Ecuador. It is evident that the perception of justice and equity among those responsible for subsidiaries is a determining factor in fulfilling their alimony duties, which in turn requires a clearer and more efficient legal approach.

Abstract The article explores the application of the right to suspend or fully or partially refuse to fulfill an obligation in the event of non-fulfillment of a counter-obligation by the other party. Scientific works of civilian classicists on obligation and research of Ukrainian civilian scientists served as material for study. The article distinguishes between conflicting and interdependent duties. It also highlights the issues of Part 3, Article 538 of the Civil Code of Ukraine, in case the buyer fails to fulfill the obligation to pre-pay for goods. The legal nature of the right to suspend or fully/partially refuse to fulfill a duty has been clarified: This is a way to protect civil rights and interests. Attention is drawn to the fact that the studied right can be exercised if the other party breaches a negative obligation. Ways to improve Ukraine's legislation on the specified topic are proposed.

Resumen El artículo está dedicado a la aplicación del derecho a suspender o negarse total o parcialmente al cumplimiento de una obligación en caso de incumplimiento de la otra parte. Como material de investigación, se emplearon los trabajos científicos de los clasicistas civiles en el campo de la obligación, así como las investigaciones de los científicos civiles ucranianos. A lo largo del artículo, se descubre qué deberes se deben considerar conflictivos mediante la distinción entre deberes conflictivos e interdependientes. Se destacan las cuestiones de aplicación de la parte 3 del art. 538 del Código Civil de Ucrania en caso de incumplimiento por parte del comprador de la obligación de pagar la mercancía por adelantado. Por otra parte, se aclara la naturaleza jurídica del derecho a suspender o negarse total o parcialmente al cumplimiento de un deber y se llega a la conclusión de que se trata de una forma de proteger los derechos e intereses civiles. Llama la atención el hecho de que el derecho estudiado se puede aplicar en caso de incumplimiento de una obligación negativa de la otra parte. Por último, se proponen formas de mejorar la legislación de Ucrania sobre el tema especificado.

Abstract This article proposes some of the principal theoretical and conceptual elements to support animal rights. This right type has found severe restrictions in the current concept of human rights, built from a tradition focused on the modern individual endowed with conscience, language, and judgment to act by morality and law. Being the only creatures that can self-determine and be free, human beings have an intrinsic value and dignity that animals would not have, which makes them deserving of the highest moral status and legal protection. This leads to the problem we seek to tackle: how to overcome the limitations of the concept of human rights that prevent the foundation of the moral status and perhaps fundamental rights of animals. The methodological design of the research consists, on the one hand, of the description of the main theoretical approaches that have been raised from moral and political theory about animal rights and, on the other hand, of some proposals and conceptual distinctions that allow progress in the foundation of animal rights. This analysis shows that there is no symmetry between rights and duties, that dignity can be seen from two perspectives, intrinsic and extrinsic, that there is a distinction between legal persons and rights-holders, and that all these elements allow us to more adequately understand the place that humans and animals occupy in the same ethical and legal community. In conclusion, these distinctions will enable us to formulate fundamental animal rights more clearly and expand the spectrum of rights-holders.

Resumen Este artículo propone algunos de los principales elementos teóricos y conceptuales para fundamentar los derechos de los animales. Este tipo de derechos ha encontrado serias restricciones en el concepto vigente de derechos humanos, el cual ha sido construido a partir de una tradición centrada en el individuo moderno, dotado de conciencia, lenguaje y juicio para actuar conforme a la moral y al derecho. Al tratarse de la única criatura que puede autodeterminarse y ser libre, el ser humano tiene un valor intrínseco, la dignidad, que no tendrían los animales y que lo hace merecedor del máximo estatus moral y de protección jurídica. Esto lleva al problema que se busca enfrentar: cómo superar las limitaciones del concepto de derechos humanos que impiden la fundamentación del estatus moral y quizá de unos derechos básicos de los animales. El diseño metodológico de la investigación consiste, por una parte, en la descripción de los principales planteamientos teóricos que, desde la teoría moral y política, se han propuesto en relación con los derechos de los animales; por otra parte, con la formulación analítica de algunas distinciones conceptuales que permiten avanzar en la fundamentación de los derechos de los animales. Este análisis muestra que no existe una simetría entre derechos y deberes; que la dignidad puede ser vista desde dos acepciones, intrínseca y extrínseca; que existe diferencia entre agentes morales y sujetos de derechos; y que estos elementos permiten entender el lugar que ocupan humanos y animales en una misma comunidad moral y jurídica. En conclusión, estas distinciones facilitan definir con mayor claridad unos derechos básicos para los animales y ampliar el espectro acerca de quiénes pueden ser sujetos de derechos.

RESUMEN Si bien las medidas que conducen a la degradación del medio ambiente ya tienen consecuencias mundiales que amenazan la existencia misma de la humanidad, la guerra en Ucrania ha demostrado una vez más la eficacia de los mecanismos jurídicos internacionales existentes en la esfera de la protección del medio ambiente. El objetivo de este estudio es analizar los mecanismos jurídicos internacionales existentes para la protección del medio ambiente desde la perspectiva de la posibilidad de criminalizar el delito de ecocidio. Sobre la base del análisis de la legislación nacional de los países que han introducido la responsabilidad penal por el delito de ecocidio, se demuestra que los enfoques nacionales para abordar esta cuestión se caracterizan por la condicionalidad histórica y tienen diferencias significativas. Estas diferencias excluyen la posibilidad de que el delincuente incurra en responsabilidad penal en ausencia de un mecanismo jurídico internacional apropiado, mientras que las consecuencias del ecocidio causan daños mundiales. Un análisis del estado de la regulación internacional ha demostrado que el principal problema con la imposibilidad de enjuiciar el ecocidio es que, a pesar de la existencia de un amplio mecanismo de protección ambiental, sigue siendo imperfecto, salvo la posibilidad de enjuiciar los delitos contra el medio ambiente relacionados con crímenes de guerra. Una evaluación de los datos presentados en los informes relativos a la guerra en Ucrania muestra que la participación en las convenciones internacionales pertinentes no garantiza en modo alguno que el país agresor no viole sus obligaciones internacionales. Se ha demostrado que el reconocimiento del ecocidio como delito a nivel internacional sigue siendo el único medio eficaz de llevar a los autores ante la justicia. Los resultados del estudio pueden utilizarse para mejorar aún más los mecanismos jurídicos para el enjuiciamiento del ecocidio, la enseñanza de disciplinas jurídicas y la investigación académica ulterior.

ABSTRACT While actions leading to environmental degradation already have global consequences threatening the very existence of humanity, the war in Ukraine has once again proved the effectiveness of existing international environmental protection mechanisms. The purpose of this study is to analyze existing international environmental protection mechanisms from the perspective of the possibility of criminalizing the crime of ecocide. Based on the analysis of the domestic law of countries that have incorporated ecocide as a crime, it follows that national approaches to addressing this issue depend on historical conditions and have significant differences. These differences hinder the prosecution of ecocide in the absence of appropriate international legal mechanisms, while the consequences of ecocide cause global damage. An analysis of the state of international regulations has shown that despite the existence of an extensive environmental protection mechanism, it remains imperfect, thus making it impossible to prosecute ecocide unless it is done in connection with war crimes. An assessment of the data presented in the reports on the war in Ukraine shows that participation in relevant international conventions does not in any way guarantee that the aggressor country will not violate its international obligations. It is shown that recognizing ecocide as a crime at the international level remains the only effective means to bring perpetrators to justice. The results of the study can be used to further improve the legal mechanisms for prosecuting ecocide, in teaching legal disciplines, and in further academic research.

Resumo O artigo analisa o marco legal para proteger o direito à vida privada no espaço digital e fortalecer os direitos constitucionais estipulados na Constituição da Jordânia, ao regular o direito à vida privada no espaço digital, protegendo os dados pessoais à luz da facilidade de coleta, retendo e processando-o e impedindo a violação do direito dos cidadãos de proteger seus dados pessoais e privacidade, conforme estipulado na Constituição da Jordânia e na legislação relevante. O artigo visa encontrar um quadro legal que equilibre os direitos dos cidadãos de proteger seus dados pessoais e permitir que dados e informações sejam processados e preservados no espaço digital, bem como a medida em que o legislador jordaniano leva em consideração os requisitos internacionais sobre a proteção do direito à vida privada no ambiente digital. O estudo chegou a várias conclusões e recomendações, das quais a mais importante é a necessidade de desenvolver legislação legal para regular o mecanismo de armazenamento e tratamento de dados pessoais dentro de restrições e obrigações claras. Além disso, é necessário desenvolver legislação para garantir a segurança do espaço digital e apoiar a sua estabilidade, e definir as obrigações impostas aos responsáveis pelos dados pessoais, bem como as punições e penalidades impostas às pessoas que infringirem a legislação que regula a direito à privacidade, tendo em conta os requisitos internacionais. coleta processandoo processando privacidade relevante recomendações claras disso estabilidade

Abstract The article analyzes the legal framework for protecting the right to private life in the digital space and strengthening the constitutional rights stipulated in the Jordanian Constitution, by regulating the right to private life in the digital space, protecting personal data in light of the ease of collecting, retaining and processing it, and preventing infringement on the right of citizens to protect their personal data and privacy as stipulated in the Jordanian Constitution and relevant legislation. The article aims to find a legal framework that balances the rights of citizens to protect their personal data, and allowing data and information to be processed and preserved in the digital space, as well as the extent to which the Jordanian legislator takes into account international requirements regarding the protection of the right to private life in the digital environment. The study reached several conclusions and recommendations, the most important of which is the need to develop legal legislation to regulate the mechanism of saving and processing personal data within clear restrictions and obligations. In addition, it is necessary to develop legislation to ensure the safety of digital space and support its stability, and define the obligations imposed on those responsible for personal data, as well as the punishments and penalties imposed on persons who violate the legislation that regulate the right to privacy, taking into account international requirements. collecting environment recommendations addition stability

RESUMEN El presente trabajo suple un frecuente vacío en la literatura bioética, que suele estar más enfocada en los derechos del paciente (especialmente su autonomía) y los deberes del médico. Bajo una perspectiva más interpersonal, bioética y jurídica, aquí se resaltan los aspectos olvidados de la relación médico-paciente para balancear las posiciones de las partes. Para el efecto, después de una introducción histórica, se indaga acerca del sentido humano de la relación médico-paciente, para luego comparar tales hallazgos con una lista de derechos humanos y estándares ético-jurídicos (tomados de otro trabajo), y con alguna regulación actual. Así, se analizan sistemáticamente los principales derechos del doctor y deberes del paciente. Este nuevo enfoque destaca algunos aspectos olvidados de esta relación, como, por ejemplo: el deber prioritario del paciente de cuidarse, su deber de colaborar con la labor médica y su deber de gratitud con el personal médico, así como el derecho del médico al descanso, a adoptar ciertas medidas de seguridad, a objetar aquellos tratamientos que considera inmorales o desproporcionados, a la libertad de expresión y al diálogo en condiciones de igualdad con otras profesiones.

ABSTRACT The present work fills a frequent gap in bioethical literature, which tends to be more focused on patient rights (especially autonomy) and physician duties. From a more interpersonal, bioethical, and legal perspective, this work highlights the forgotten aspects of the doctor-patient relationship to balance the positions of the parties. For this purpose, following a historical introduction, the human significance of the doctor-patient relationship is examined. This is then compared with a list of human rights and ethical-legal standards (taken from another work), as well as with some current regulations. In this way, the main rights of the doctor and the duties of the patient are systematically analyzed. This new approach highlights some forgotten aspects of this relationship, such as: the patient’s primary duty to take care of themselves, their duty to collaborate with medical work, and their duty of gratitude to medical staff, as well as the physician’s right to rest, to adopt certain security measures, to object to treatments they consider immoral or unproportional, to freedom of expression, and to dialogue on equal terms with other professions.

Resumo A percepção tradicional de direitos e obrigações mútuos no mundo em desenvolvimento estava praticamente limitada apenas aos seres humanos. Felizmente, esse entendimento convencional está crescendo para incluir todos os seres vivos no âmbito de certos direitos básicos. Também está abordando aquelas criaturas que coexistem naturalmente com as sociedades humanas ou estão associadas à subsistência e interdependência delas. Isso significa que deve haver um corpo prescrito de regras e regulamentos para regular a conduta humana na sociedade. No Paquistão, o despertar social para os direitos dos animais, apoiado por campanhas internacionais, levou as instituições estatais a criar um corpo adequado de regras e regulamentos para a proteção dos direitos dos animais. O objetivo de desenvolver a compreensão necessária é, em primeiro lugar, esclarecer: o que é um direito e o que é uma obrigação? Em segundo lugar, qual deve ser a natureza desses direitos e obrigações? Devem ser apenas específicos dos seres humanos ou existem outros seres que também possuem certos direitos? Se outros seres vivos e espécies têm direitos, como esses direitos devem ser conferidos e regulamentados? Quem está obrigado a fornecer esses direitos? Quem é o responsável por garantir o cumprimento de tais obrigações? Está ficando mais claro que, assim como os seres humanos, os animais têm certos direitos enquanto seres vivos. Quase todas as religiões do mundo prescreveram certos direitos a eles que estão criptografados em seus livros sagrados. A maioria das pessoas está ciente do conceito básico de observar o comportamento suave e gentil apenas para animais de estimação. Hoje, sabemos cientificamente que a humanidade e os animais têm uma inevitabilidade coexistente. Ao observar o comportamento e a sensação mútuos, o mundo concedeu direitos especiais aos animais, fazendo leis e atos. A implementação desses direitos só pode ser feita por meio do entendimento mútuo dos cidadãos sob a supervisão das agências de aplicação da lei. É responsabilidade do Estado e dos cidadãos dos Estados proteger conjuntamente os animais quando seus direitos estão sendo violados.

Abstract The traditional perception of mutual rights and obligations in the developing world was practically confined to human beings only. Fortunately, this conventional understanding is growing to include all living beings in the scope of certain basic rights. It is also addressing those creatures which are co-existing with human societies naturally or are associated for their subsistence and interdependence. It means that there should be prescribed body of rules and regulations to regulate human conduct in the society. In Pakistan social awakening for animal rights supported by international campaigns have urged state institutions to make adequate body of rules and regulations for protection of animal rights. Purpose of developing required understanding, at the first place is to clarify what is a right and what is an obligation? Secondly what should be the nature of these rights and obligations. Should these be only specific to human beings or there are other beings who also possess certain rights? If other living beings, species have rights, how these rights are to be conferred and regulated? Who is under obligation to provide these rights? Who is liable and responsible to ensure observance of such obligations? It is becoming clearer that like human beings’ animals do have certain rights as living beings. All most all religions of the world have prescribed certain rights to them which are encrypted in their holy books. Most of the people are aware of basic concept of observing mild and kind behavior towards pet animals only. Today we scientifically know that humanity and animals have co-existing inevitability. By observing mutual behavior and sensation, the world has provided special rights to the animals by making laws and Acts. Implementation of those rights can only be made through mutual understanding of the citizens under the supervision of law enforcing agencies. It is the responsibility of state and citizens of the states jointly to protect the animals when their rights are being violated.

Resumen: En el ámbito del contrato de compraventa, y específicamente en el contenido de la obligación del vendedor, el enunciado “dar una cosa” (art. 1661 del Código Civil de Uruguay) podría implicar la obligación de entregar la posesión de un bien o la obligación de transferir el dominio, aspecto que ha sido debatido en el ámbito doctrinal. A pesar de que la jurisprudencia y doctrina tradicional limitan el contenido de la obligación del vendedor al deber de entregar la posesión del bien, una revisión conceptual y contextual vinculada con otros contratos nominados del mismo Código Civil, así como con negocios jurídicos de similar contenido que la compraventa creados por leyes especiales posteriores, sumada a la aplicación de reglas de la interpretación lógico sistemática, teleológica y evolutiva, determinan que el vendedor no solo está obligado a entregar la posesión del bien objeto de la compraventa, sino también a transmitir la propiedad.

Abstract: In the context of a purchase and sale contract, specifically concerning the seller's obligations, the phrase "to give a thing" (Article 1661 of the Civil Code of Uruguay) could imply either the obligation to deliver possession of a good or the obligation to transfer ownership. This has been a subject of debate in doctrinal discussions. Although traditional jurisprudence and doctrine have limited the seller's obligation to delivering possession of the good, a conceptual and contextual review-linked with other named contracts in the same Civil Code and with similar legal transactions created by later special laws, combined with the application of logical-systematic, teleological, and evolutionary interpretation rules-determines that the seller is not only obligated to deliver possession of the good being sold but also to transfer ownership.

Resumo: No âmbito do contrato de compra e venda, e especificamente no conteúdo da obrigação do vendedor, a afirmação “dar una cosa” (dar algo; art. 1661 do Código Civil Uruguaio) poderia implicar a obrigação de entregar a posse de um bem ou a obrigação de transferir a propriedade, aspecto que tem sido debatido no campo doutrinário. Embora a jurisprudência e a doutrina tradicional limitem o conteúdo da obrigação do vendedor ao dever de entregar a posse do bem, uma revisão conceitual e contextual vinculada a outros contratos disciplinados no mesmo Código Civil, bem como a negócios jurídicos de conteúdo semelhante à compra e venda criados por leis especiais posteriores, somada à aplicação de regras de interpretação lógica sistemática, teleológica e evolutiva, determinam que o vendedor não só é obrigado a entregar a posse do bem objeto da venda, mas também a transferir a propriedade.

RESUMEN: En este artículo se analiza la conveniencia, desde el punto de vista teórico, de regular el “control de incorporación” para las relaciones jurídicas que no son de consumo, debido a la frecuencia de contratos celebrados con cláusulas predispuestas y no negociadas en la práctica colombiana. Para ello se estudian las similitudes y diferencias entre las figuras previstas en el régimen general de las obligaciones y contratos que guardan cierta similitud con el “control de incorporación” y este, como también la relación entre el control de incorporación y el neoformalismo, llegando a la conclusión acerca de la conveniencia de regular, de manera adecuada, el “control de incorporación”, por constituir una medida superadora para la protección del contratante adherente.

ABSTRACT: This article analyses the convenience, from a theoretical point of view, of regulating the “control of incorporation” for non-consumer legal relations, given the frequency of contracts concluded with pre-arranged and non-negotiated clauses in Colombian practice. To this end, the similarities and differences between the figures foreseen in the general regime of obligations and contracts that have a certain similarity with the “control of incorporation” and this one are studied, as well as the relationship between the control of incorporation and neo-formalism, reaching the conclusion on the convenience of regulating, in an appropriate manner, the “control of incorporation”, as it constitutes an overcoming measure for the protection of the adhering contracting party.

This article provides an overall assessment on the justiciability of economic, social and cultural rights (ESCRs) within the legal system of South Sudan. It establishes that, in theory, ESCRs are justiciable under the legal system of South Sudan in a complementary and collaborative manner at two levels, namely, the national and supranational. The article argues that ESCRs may in theory be legally and judicially enforceable by virtue of the Constitution and domestic legislation. Furthermore, ESCRs are justiciable by virtue of the automatic incorporation of numerous treaties into the Bill of Rights in the Constitution, with these treaties also effecting justiciability as part of the international treaty obligations of South Sudan. It further asserts that there are two parallel layers, national and supranational, which give effect to the legal realisation of ESCRs in South Sudan. This is presented through numerous domestic constitutional and legal provisions, and also international and regional treaty obligations of South Sudan. For that purpose, the article appraises relevant provisions in the Constitution, domestic laws, and United Nations and regional treaties to which South Sudan is a state party. In addition, the article examines a number of bodies and entities that are established by these frameworks to operationalise the enforcement of ESCRs. The article concludes that this composite situation forms a basis for all the instruments and structures to supplement and complement one another in a non-hierarchical perspective. The view expressed in the article is that the current status remains theoretical and is empirically and practically challenged by the factual realities that hinder and hamper the operationalisation of justiciability in South Sudan. It recommends that a practical test is required in order for a comprehensive legal jurisprudence about the justiciability of ESCRs in and for South Sudan to materialise.

Abstract: This paper analyzes the European regulation of core platform service providers, which due to their position in the digital market have been designated by the European Commission as gatekeepers. The Digital Markets Act imposes several obligations and prohibitions on these entrepreneurs, creating a market legal system parallel to traditional Competition Law. The Digital Markets Act explicitly claims to be the guarantor of the contestability and fairness of the digital market, which basically means that it assumes that Competition Law is unable to safeguard these values. After introducing the protagonist of the regulation, delving into the requirements that justify the consideration of the service provider as a gatekeeper and the characteristics of the digital market, the main obligations imposed on these new economic actors are examined. Finally, we will examine the relationship between the Digital Markets Act and Competition Law, questioning the advisability of enacting a regulation outside this sector of the legal system, instead of addressing its comprehensive reform to take into account the specificities of the digital sector.

Resumen: El presente trabajo analiza la regulación europea de los prestadores de servicios básicos de plataforma que, por su posición en el mercado digital, han sido designados guardianes de acceso por la Comisión Europea. El Reglamento de Mercados Digitales impone a estos empresarios una serie de obligaciones y prohibiciones, creando un ordenamiento regulador del mercado paralelo al tradicional Derecho de la competencia. El Reglamento de Mercados Digitales se postula expresamente como garante de la disputabilidad y la equidad del mercado digital, lo que en el fondo supone asumir que el Derecho de la competencia es incapaz de salvaguardar estos valores. Tras presentar al protagonista de la mencionada norma, adentrándonos en los requisitos que justifican la consideración del prestador de servicios como guardián de acceso y en las características del mercado digital, se examinan las obligaciones más significativas que se imponen a estos nuevos actores económicos. Finalmente, indagaremos en la relación entre el Reglamento de Mercados Digitales y el Derecho de la competencia, poniendo en cuestión la conveniencia de promulgar una norma al margen de este sector del ordenamiento, en lugar de abordar su reforma integral para tener en cuenta las especialidades del sector digital.