Abstract Based on the historical look and the political sociology analytic tools, this text aims to discuss the establishment of rules for occupying the highest position in the hierarchy of the state Public Prosecutor’s Office: the position of Attorney General. By analyzing the trajectory of those who held this position from 1891 to after 1988, it was possible to understand the changes in the official and non-official rules regarding the morphological transformation of nominees. The study of 33 cases reveals the political and social tensions surrounding the Public Prosecutor’s Office’s high hierarchy until the 21st century. tools Prosecutors Prosecutor s Office General 189 1988 nonofficial non nominees 3 Offices st century 18 198 1 19

Resumo A partir de um olhar histórico e das ferramentas analíticas da sociologia política, o objetivo deste texto é discutir o estabelecimento das regras de ocupação do posto mais alto na hierarquia do Ministério Público estadual: o cargo de procurador-geral de Justiça. Com base numa análise das trajetórias daqueles que ocuparam o cargo desde sua criação (1891) até o período pós 1988, foi possível compreender as mudanças nessas regras (oficias e não oficias), assim como a transformação morfológica dos nomeados. Os 33 casos analisados indicam as tensões políticas e sociais que envolvem a alta hierarquia do MP até o século XXI. política estadual procuradorgeral procurador geral Justiça 1891 (1891 1988 oficias oficias, , oficias) nomeados 3 XXI 189 (189 198 18 (18 19 1 (1 (

Given South Africa's shameful apartheid past, equality before the law should seep through every stratum of its society. Arguably, equality should be more of a consideration in areas where apartheid caused significant damage, such as in property relations. Yet, this is far from being the case. In this article, the authors contend that legal protection of certain categories of property is based on who the property owners are and on the value of the asset. This argument is based on a case study of the legal protection afforded to homeless people's ownership of property. Property relations in capitalist "post"-apartheid South Africa operate and exist within a hierarchy of property interests, resulting in more protection being afforded to certain forms of property interests and less (and sometimes no) protection given to other forms of property interests. Thus, certain forms of property ("formal property"), such as immovable property, enjoy more protection than "informal property", such as the makeshift homes of homeless people. This dichotomy is most evident in South Africa in light of the housing crisis. While the State focuses on preserving the free market, safeguarding rights over formal property, and minimising the existence of "nuisance" in urban areas, homeless people remain the most destitute people in the country. Hence, it is contended that property law does not protect homeless people and their belongings as informal property owners. Two chief arguments are made in this regard. First, it is asserted that there is an ordering of property rights protection in a capitalist society and a correlating hierarchy of property interests. Although informal property is property deserving of legal protection, it is generally deprived of such protection because it is perceived as less valuable. This article focuses primarily on homeless people's belongings (informal property), which, it is emphasised constitutes "property" as envisaged under section 25(1) of the Constitution, and extends to the materials that shelter homeless people. Thus, law enforcement agencies' appropriation of homeless people's belongings constitutes an arbitrary deprivation of property. The authors posit that the tendency to prioritise "formal" property over "informal" property is arbitrary and unconstitutional. A second contention is that this difference in treatment of, and protection afforded to, informal property constitutes discrimination on the ground of poverty, which falls foul of the equality clause under section 9(3) of the Constitution, and of the Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (PEPUDA). The argument is made that the difference in treatment between legal protection afforded to certain property owners as opposed to others constitutes indirect unfair discrimination.

The state resorts to misconstructions of customary land tenure rights in its land reform policy that emulate apartheid-era thinking, rather than facing the realities of modern-day land practices, which include collective decision making in the everyday management of land separate from the state's regulatory control. A developmental custodial state treads a thin line in the implementation of its statutory and policy interferences so as not to overstep the boundaries of existing land rights already operating under a living customary law system. Only through public participation and consultation with communities can the reasonableness of regulatory legislation and policies be accurately assessed and determined. Space must be created for all South Africans to participate in the economy to enable inclusive growth in various ways. In so doing, the state should avoid creating a hierarchy of land rights holders and should regulate the natural resource through policies that are aligned with reform objectives, without encroaching on spaces already regulated by customary and communal law systems. In this article the legal implications of applying a state custodianship approach to communal land, traditional leadership and misconstructions of customary law, and the political interpretation of constitutional land reform objectives is discussed.

RESUMEN La Convención de Viena sobre el Derecho de los Tratados reconoce el concepto de ius cogens como normas imperativas del derecho internacional. Según la teoría de la humanización del derecho internacional, el ius cogens expresa la ética y la protección de los valores morales de la humanidad, en los que se fundamenta la comunidad de Estados. Los derechos humanos, inherentes a la condición humana, son de gran importancia y los países han establecido organizaciones para universalizarlos mediante instrumentos internacionales. Sin embargo, no todas las normas de derechos humanos son consideradas ius cogens. Por lo tanto, esta investigación tiene como objetivo analizar la influencia de la protección internacional de los derechos humanos en el ius cogens y cómo adquieren esta condición en la protección de las personas. Se realizó una investigación cualitativa utilizando métodos analítico-sintéticos e histórico-lógicos, empleando un enfoque documental y un diseño investigativo no experimental. Se llevó a cabo una exhaustiva investigación bibliográfica para comprender los conceptos jurídicos. Como conclusión, se determinó que no todas las normas internacionales que protegen los derechos humanos son consideradas ius cogens. Esto sugiere la posibilidad de establecer una jerarquía entre los derechos humanos, donde aquellos reconocidos con esta condición se considerarían superiores a aquellos que no poseen el carácter de ius cogens.

ABSTRACT The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties recognizes the concept of jus cogens as peremptory norms of international law. According to the theory of the humanization of international law, ius cogens expresses the ethics and protection of the moral values of humanity, on which the community of states is based. Human rights, inherent to the human condition, are of great importance and countries have established organizations to universalize them through international instruments. However, not all human rights norms are considered jus cogens. Therefore, this research aims to analyze the influence of international protection of human rights on ius cogens and how they acquire this status in the protection of individuals. Qualitative research was conducted using analytical-synthetic and historical-logical methods, employing a documentary approach and a non-experimental research design. Exhaustive bibliographic research was carried out to understand the legal concepts. As a conclusion, it was determined that not all international norms that protect human rights are considered ius cogens. This suggests the possibility of establishing a hierarchy among human rights, where those recognized with this status would be considered superior to those that do not possess the character of ius cogens.

Resumen La importancia en el ámbito nacional argentino del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, especialmente respecto a los tratados internacionales y estándares legales en materia de género se verifica, desde 1994, en el artículo 75 inciso 22 de la Constitución Nacional. Según este, determinados instrumentos de Derechos Humanos y los que en el futuro se incorporen gozan de jerarquía constitucional en las condiciones de su vigencia; es decir, tal como el instrumento efectivamente rige en el ámbito internacional y considerando la interpretación y aplicación jurisprudencial de los órganos de aplicación de Tratados. Asimismo, la Convención Interamericana para prevenir, sancionar y erradicar la violencia contra la mujer -Convención Belem do Para- ha sido ratificada por el Estado argentino y aun cuando no goza de jerarquía constitucional, tiene jerarquía supralegal. Al respecto, la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en el caso “Gelman vs. Uruguay” sostuvo que el Estado debe ejercer un control de convencionalidad entre sus normas internas y los tratados internacionales de Derechos Humanos de los que es parte, tarea que corresponde a cualquier autoridad pública y no exclusivamente al Poder Judicial. Por consiguiente, la influencia del Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos debe estar presente en todas las instituciones estatales. Sin embargo, poco se conoce sobre el impacto que esta constitucionalización tiene en la práctica. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo conocer cómo, cuánto y para qué se utiliza el derecho regional en el reconocimiento y avances en los derechos de las mujeres en Argentina. Específicamente, busca conocer cómo ha sido el uso de los estándares en materia de género del Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos por parte de los tres poderes del Estado (Poder Legislativo, Poder Ejecutivo y Poder Judicial), mediante un análisis fuertemente cuantitativo que pretende ser una primera herramienta base para investigaciones futuras más específicas.

Abstract The importance of International Human Rights Law in the argentinian national scope, specially regarding the international treaties and legal standards in the matter of gender, is verified in the article 75 inc. 22 of the National Constitution since 1994. According to this, certain Human Rights instruments and those that will be incorporated in a future have constitutional hierarchy in the conditions of its validity; that is to say, as the instrument effectively rules in the international scope and taking into consideration the interpretation and jurisprudential application of international treaty bodies. Likewise, the Interamerican Convention of the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Woman -Convention of Belem do Para- was ratified by the argentinian State and despite not having constitutional hierarchy it has supralegal hierarchy. In this regard, the Interamerican Court of Human Rights in the case “Gelman vs. Uruguay” held that the State must exercise a conventionally control between its internal legislation and the international Human Rights treaties to which it is a party, duty that belongs to any public authority, not exclusively to the Judiciary. Therefore, Inter-American Human Rights System influence must be present in all State institutions. However, little is known about the impact that this constitutionalizing has in practice. This paper aims to know how, how much and for what the regional law is used in the recognition and advancement of women’s rights in Argentina. Specifically, it seeks to know how the gender standards of the Inter-American Human Rights System have been used by the three powers of the State (Executive Power, Legislative Power and the Judicial Power) , through a quantitative analysis that aims to be a first base tool for more specific future research.

Resumen Tomando como fuentes las actas de las audiencias y la sentencia del juicio oral, el artículo examina la evolución de la causa “Camps” (44/86) en los primeros años luego del retorno a la democracia en Argentina (1984-1987). Este juicio fue el único de mediados de los años ochenta en el que se condenó de manera conjunta a jefes militares, a cuadros de mando intermedio y a subordinados en la jerarquía policial, y el primero que produjo un pronunciamiento jurídico civil sobre la cuestión de la obediencia debida. Se sostiene que la causa 44 supuso un escenario de continuidad en término de actores, conceptos, ritos y prácticas con respecto al Juicio a las Juntas, y que al profundizar las investigaciones sobre los cuadros operativos, al producir una sentencia y, de ella, un pronunciamiento jurídico sobre cuestiones trascendentes que hacían a la cuestión del juzgamiento del pasado represivo en aquel contexto, el juicio y, principalmente, su desenlace se volvieron factores importantes en los conflictos que precedieron a las leyes de Punto Final y de Obediencia Debida.

Abstract Using as the main sources the court records of the hearings and the sentence of the oral trial, the article examines the evolution of the “Camps” case (44/86) in the first years after the return to democracy in Argentina (1984-1987). This trial was the only one in the mid-1980s in which military commanders, mid-level commanders and subordinates in the police hierarchy were jointly convicted, and the first to make a civil legal pronouncement on the question of due obedience. The hypothesis is that Case 44 represented a scenario of continuity in terms of actors, concepts, rituals and practices in regarding of the Juicio a las Juntas, and that by deepening the investigations into the operational cadres, by producing a sentence and, from it, a legal pronouncement on transcendental questions on the issue of judging the repressive past in that context, the trial and, mainly in its outcome, became important factors in the conflicts that preceded the laws of Punto Final and Obediencia Debida.

Resumen La presente investigación tiene como finalidad el estudio desde la perspectiva de los Derechos Humanos, del incumplimiento de la cláusula de interpretación conforme consagrada en el artículo 1° constitucional, en virtud de las determinaciones jurisprudenciales emitidas por el máximo Tribunal del Estado mexicano, respecto de la restricción contenida en la fracción XIII del artículo 123 de la Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. Para demostrarlo se utiliza el método hipotético- deductivo y el método interpretativo, que permita analizar el fenómeno jurídico, su origen, determinación e interpretación; lo anterior desde la legislación, la doctrina jurídica y diversas sentencias en materia de amparo (como marco empírico), lo que permitirá estudiar el origen de la cláusula de interpretación conforme a través de su herramienta hermenéutica “el principio pro persona”, las determinaciones jurisprudenciales y su alcance, así como las restricciones que han afectado a un sector específico, siendo estos los Policías, Ministerios Públicos, etc.

Abstrac The purpose of this research is to study from the perspective of Human Rights, the breach of the interpretation clause as enshrined in article 1 of the Constitution, by virtue of the jurisprudential determinations issued by the highest Court of the Mexican state, regarding the restriction contained in section XIII of article 123 of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States.To demonstrate it, the hypothetical-deductive method and the interpretive method are used, which allow analyzing the legal phenomenon, its origin, determination and interpretation; the foregoing from the legislation, the legal doctrine and various rulings on amparo (as an empirical framework), which will allow studying the origin of the interpretation clause according to its hermeneutical tool "the pro person principle", the jurisprudential determinations and its scope, as well as the restrictions that have affected a specific sector, these being the Police, Public Ministries, etc.

Abstract This article is semi-experiential, written from the vantage point of a critical insider/outsider as the author has no formal degree in Law but her research at the intersections of law and feminism and her teaching experience as a Political Science faculty in a law school, for seven years, mark her as an insider. This specificity or rather ambiguity of her location aids in an act of appropriation and subversion in keeping with the vision of the Feminist Judgments Projects from different parts of the world, to rupture the Law’s/judges’ claim to exclusivity of judging. The key objective of the article is to engage with methodological and epistemological challenges that a feminist rewriter of a judgment has to face in a neo/post-colonial context like contemporary India. The author draws attention to the lack of interdisciplinary perspectives in legal education curriculum and pedagogy in India and argues that reimagining of justice by supplying radical interpretive frameworks requires re-imagination of the system that educates students of law who then enter legal practice in various capacities and roles. The article also locates judicial privilege and hierarchy in everyday practices and technicalities of law insisted upon in courts; exhibited in complexity of legal language and discursive gestures; and the materiality of judicial authority inherent in spatial practices, symbols and monuments. semiexperiential, semiexperiential semi experiential, experiential semi-experiential insideroutsider insider outsider school years world Laws/judges Lawsjudges s/judges s judges Law’s/judges judging neo/postcolonial neopostcolonial neo/post colonial neo post reimagination re imagination roles courts gestures monuments Laws sjudges postcolonial neopost

Resumo Este artigo é semiempírico, escrito a partir do ponto de vista de alguém que faz uma crítica como alguém que atua e não atua na área ao mesmo tempo (insider/outsider), já que a autora não tem formação em Direito, mas pode ser considerada alguém da área por sua pesquisa nas interseções do Direito e do feminismo e sua experiência de ensino como professora de Ciência Política em uma faculdade de Direito por sete anos. Essa especificidade, ou melhor, essa ambiguidade de sua localização a auxilia a, em um ato de apropriação e subversão, no âmbito dos Projetos de Julgamentos Feministas de diferentes partes do mundo, desfazer a pretensão que tem o Direito/a magistratura de exclusividade do ato de julgar. O principal objetivo deste artigo é confrontar os desafios metodológicos e epistemológicos que tem diante de si uma reescritora feminista de decisões judiciais em um contexto neo/pós-colonial como a Índia contemporânea. A autora chama a atenção para a falta de perspectivas interdisciplinares no currículo e na pedagogia dos cursos de Direito na Índia e argumenta que imaginar uma nova justiça mediante o uso de estruturas interpretativas radicais exige imaginar um novo sistema de formação das pessoas que estudam o Direito e se inserem na prática jurídica em diferentes funções e desempenhando diferentes papéis. O artigo também identifica o privilégio e a hierarquia judiciais nas práticas cotidianas e nas tecnicalidades do Direito nas quais insiste o Judiciário; na complexidade da linguagem jurídica e dos gestos discursivos; e na materialidade da autoridade judicial inerente às práticas, símbolos e monumentos espaciais. semiempírico insider/outsider, insideroutsider insider/outsider , insider outsider (insider/outsider) anos especificidade melhor subversão mundo Direitoa julgar neo/póscolonial neopóscolonial neo/pós colonial neo pós contemporânea papéis Judiciário discursivos espaciais (insider/outsider póscolonial neopós

Abstract After the legalization of euthanasia, a constitutional and bioethical problem emerges that reveals the deficiencies, gaps and legal conflicts unresolved by LO 3/2021, of March 24. The lack of protection of vulnerable groups, the flight from conventional legal guarantees and the harmfulness of fundamental rights, among other reasons, support the constitutional dimension of the right to die. The legal control of euthanasia currently faces its legal construction as a fundamental right despite the appearance as a right to "help to die", based on the connection with the right to life, physical and moral integrity, dignity, freedom, privacy (LORE Statement of Reasons). However, from a constitutional perspective, the exclusion of minors and subjects without capacity from their subjective sphere, and the risk of eluding the weighting in conflict with other rights by adopting a higher in fact hierarchy is unsatisfactory.

Resumen Tras la regulación de la eutanasia emerge una problemática constitucional y bioética que revela las deficiencias, lagunas y conflictos jurídicos sin resolver por la LO 3/2021, de 24 de marzo (LORE). La desprotección de colectivos vulnerables, la huida de las garantías jurídicas convencionales y la lesividad de derechos fundamentales, entre otras razones, fundamentan la dimensión constitucional del derecho a morir. El control jurídico de la eutanasia se enfrenta en la actualidad a su construcción legal como derecho fundamental pese a la apariencia como derecho prestacional de "ayuda a morir", en base a la conexión con el derecho a la vida, integridad física y moral, dignidad, libertad, intimidad (Exposición de Motivos LORE). Sin embargo, desde una perspectiva constitucional, resulta insatisfactoria la exclusión de menores y sujetos sin capacidad de su ámbito subjetivo y el riesgo de eludir la ponderación en conflicto con otros derechos al adoptar una jerarquía superior de hecho.

Resum Després de la regulació de l'eutanàsia emergeix una problemàtica constitucional i bioètica que revela les deficiències, les llacunes i els conflictes jurídics sense resoldre per la LO 3/2021, de 24 de març (LORE). La desprotecció de col·lectius vulnerables, la fugida de les garanties jurídiques convencionals i la lesivitat de drets fonamentals, entre altres raons, fonamenten la dimensió constitucional del dret a morir. El control jurídic de l'eutanàsia s'enfronta actualment a la seva construcció legal com a dret fonamental malgrat l'aparença com a dret prestacional d'"ajuda a morir", en base a la connexió amb el dret a la vida, integritat física i moral, dignitat , llibertat, intimitat (Exposició de Motius LORE). Tanmateix, des d'una perspectiva constitucional resulta insatisfactòria l'exclusió de menors i subjectes sense capacitat del seu àmbit subjectiu i el risc d'eludir la ponderació en conflicte amb altres drets en adoptar una jerarquia superior de fet.

Abstract The general objective of this research is to identify the reasons or motives that have led to the vertiginous increase in cases of sexual harassment in the workplace against female workers since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The provisional hypothesis is that in the context of labor relations in which women are employees hierarchically subordinate to men or groups of men, there has been an alarming increase in cases of sexual harassment violence, mainly because the Coronavirus pandemic has highlighted the situations of violence that already exist in Brazilian society, generating a kind of systemic pandemic, which occurs when a viral pandemic interacts directly with other diseases and/or social problems. The specific objectives are to present the institute of sexual harassment at work, to present the relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the increase in the number of cases of sexual harassment in labor relations practiced against women and to propose a reflection on this socio-legal phenomenon based on Pierpaolo Donati’s relational paradigm and Antonio Márquez Prieto’s Relational Justice. The approach used was deductive; the research technique was documental and the method of procedure was monographic. It was concluded that the only way to put an end to the hierarchy of gender inequality at work is through a collective commitment to reciprocity and good faith within the legal culture. COVID19 COVID 19 COVID-1 society andor problems sociolegal socio Donatis Donati s Prietos Prieto Justice deductive monographic culture COVID1 1 COVID-

Resumo A presente investigação tem como objetivo geral identificar quais os motivos ou as razões que permitiram o aumento vertiginoso dos casos de assédio sexual laboral contra as trabalhadoras a partir da deflagração da pandemia da COVID-19. Como hipótese provisória indica-se que no âmbito das relações trabalhistas nas quais a mulher figura como empregada hierarquicamente subordinada a homens ou grupo de homens, houve um aumento alarmante dos casos de violência de assédio sexual, principalmente porque a pandemia do Coronavírus evidenciou as situações violência já existentes na sociedade brasileira, gerando uma espécie de pandemia sistêmica, cuja ocorrência se dá quando uma pandemia virótica interage diretamente com outras doenças e/ou problemas sociais. Os objetivos específicos são apresentar o instituto do assédio sexual laboral, apresentar a relação entre a pandemia de COVID-19 e o aumento do número de casos de assédio sexual nas relações trabalhistas praticado contra as mulheres e propor uma reflexão acerca desse fenômeno sociojurídico a partir do paradigma relacional de Pierpaolo Donati e da Justiça Relacional de Antonio Márquez Prieto. O método de abordagem utilizado foi o dedutivo; a técnica de pesquisa foi a documental e o método de procedimento o monográfico. Concluiu-se que a única forma de acabar com a hierarquia da desigualdade de gênero no trabalho é a partir da vinculação coletiva à reciprocidade e à boa-fé, no âmbito da cultura jurídica. COVID19. COVID19 COVID 19. 19 indicase indica brasileira sistêmica eou sociais COVID-1 Prieto dedutivo monográfico Concluiuse Concluiu boafé, boafé boa fé, fé boa-fé jurídica COVID1 1 COVID-

Resumen La importancia en el ámbito nacional argentino del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, especialmente respecto a los tratados internacionales y estándares legales en materia de género se verifica, desde 1994, en el artículo 75 inciso 22 de la Constitución Nacional. Según este, determinados instrumentos de Derechos Humanos y los que en el futuro se incorporen gozan de jerarquía constitucional en las condiciones de su vigencia; es decir, tal como el instrumento efectivamente rige en el ámbito internacional y considerando la interpretación y aplicación jurisprudencial de los órganos de aplicación de Tratados. Asimismo, la Convención Interamericana para prevenir, sancionar y erradicar la violencia contra la mujer -Convención Belem do Para- ha sido ratificada por el Estado argentino y aun cuando no goza de jerarquía constitucional, tiene jerarquía supralegal. Al respecto, la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en el caso “Gelman vs. Uruguay” sostuvo que el Estado debe ejercer un control de convencionalidad entre sus normas internas y los tratados internacionales de Derechos Humanos de los que es parte, tarea que corresponde a cualquier autoridad pública y no exclusivamente al Poder Judicial. Por consiguiente, la influencia del Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos debe estar presente en todas las instituciones estatales. Sin embargo, poco se conoce sobre el impacto que esta constitucionalización tiene en la práctica. Este trabajo tiene como objetivo conocer cómo, cuánto y para qué se utiliza el derecho regional en el reconocimiento y avances en los derechos de las mujeres en Argentina. Específicamente, busca conocer cómo ha sido el uso de los estándares en materia de género del Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos por parte de los tres poderes del Estado (Poder Legislativo, Poder Ejecutivo y Poder Judicial), mediante un análisis fuertemente cuantitativo que pretende ser una primera herramienta base para investigaciones futuras más específicas.

Abstract The importance of International Human Rights Law in the argentinian national scope, specially regarding the international treaties and legal standards in the matter of gender, is verified in the article 75 inc. 22 of the National Constitution since 1994. According to this, certain Human Rights instruments and those that will be incorporated in a future have constitutional hierarchy in the conditions of its validity; that is to say, as the instrument effectively rules in the international scope and taking into consideration the interpretation and jurisprudential application of international treaty bodies. Likewise, the Interamerican Convention of the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Woman -Convention of Belem do Para- was ratified by the argentinian State and despite not having constitutional hierarchy it has supralegal hierarchy. In this regard, the Interamerican Court of Human Rights in the case “Gelman vs. Uruguay” held that the State must exercise a conventionally control between its internal legislation and the international Human Rights treaties to which it is a party, duty that belongs to any public authority, not exclusively to the Judiciary. Therefore, Inter-American Human Rights System influence must be present in all State institutions. However, little is known about the impact that this constitutionalizing has in practice. This paper aims to know how, how much and for what the regional law is used in the recognition and advancement of women’s rights in Argentina. Specifically, it seeks to know how the gender standards of the Inter-American Human Rights System have been used by the three powers of the State (Executive Power, Legislative Power and the Judicial Power) , through a quantitative analysis that aims to be a first base tool for more specific future research.

Abstract This paper analyzes the social effects of U.S. Master of Laws degrees (LL.M.) in the Colombian juridical field. Therefore, this paper asks: what are the selection requirements of U.S. LL.M. programs? How do selection requirements reproduce social hierarchies in a country such as Colombia? To address these questions, this paper first describes the admission criteria of LL.M. programs in U.S. universities by relying on qualitative data such as the universities' description of their selection mechanisms and the costs of admissions. Then, using primary and secondary quantitative and qualitative data, the paper describes how selection criteria reproduce the Colombian legal field's social hierarchies. The article focuses on four selection requirements: the English proficiency requirement, grades, C/V, letters of recommendation, and the recognition of the degree. Finally, the paper concludes that current selection mechanisms reproduce social hierarchies in Colombia's legal profession.

Resumen Este artículo analiza los efectos sociales de los títulos de maestría en derecho (LL.M., por sus siglas en inglés) de los Estados Unidos en el campo jurídico colombiano. Por lo tanto, este documento pregunta: ¿Cuáles son los requisitos de selección de los programas LL.M. en Estados Unidos? ¿Cómo los requisitos de selección reproducen las jerarquías sociales en un país como Colombia? Para abordar estas preguntas, este artículo primero describe los criterios de admisión a las maestrías en derecho establecidos por las universidades de los Estados Unidos basándose en datos cualitativos, como la descripción de las universidades de sus mecanismos de selección y los costos de admisión. Luego, utilizando datos cuantitativos y cualitativos primarios y secundarios, el artículo describe cómo los criterios de selección de estos programas reproducen las jerarquías sociales del campo jurídico colombiano. El texto se centra en cuatro criterios de selección: el requisito de dominio del inglés, las calificaciones, la hoja de vida, las cartas de recomendación y el reconocimiento del título. Finalmente, el artículo concluye que los mecanismos de selección actuales reproducen las jerarquías sociales en la profesión jurídica.

Abstract The "Right to identity" has become over time the ethical, political, and legal paradigm that supports the claim of Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo (Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo) for the restitution of those who were appropriated during the years of State terrorism in Argentina. Today, this right is present with constitutional hierarchy in the Argentine legal order and there are public bodies, such as the National Commission for the Right to Identity (CONADI), which aims to ensure it and repair its violation in the past. However, this right did not always exist as such. Its current formulation is the product of a complex history in which the political activism of the Grandmothers, the intervention of professionals and intellectuals who collaborated with their cause and different actors of the transnational networks of human rights, and the defense of children's rights are intercrossed. Based on the research and analysis of oral testimonies and written sources of diverse origins, in this article, we will investigate the historical origins of the “Right to identity” and the actors involved in its “invention”. We will also examine its impact on the struggle of the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo and its significance beyond this specific cause. This analysis will allow us to observe how the "invention" of this right was produced in the dialogue between global knowledge and the local activism of the Grandmothers of the Plaza de Mayo and between the historically situated specificity of its cause and the universalist and transhistorical expectation of Human Rights.

Resumen El derecho a la identidad se ha constituido a lo largo del tiempo en el paradigma ético, político y jurídico que sustenta el reclamo de Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo por la restitución de quienes fueron apropiados/as durante la vigencia del Terrorismo de Estado en Argentina. En la actualidad, este derecho está consagrado con jerarquía constitucional en nuestro orden jurídico y existen organismos públicos, como la Comisión Nacional por el Derecho a la Identidad (CONADI), que velan por garantizarlo y reparar su violación en el pasado. Sin embargo, este derecho no siempre existió como tal. Su formulación actual es producto de una historia compleja en la que se entrecruzaron el activismo político de Abuelas, la intervención de profesionales e intelectuales que colaboraron con su causa y diferentes actores de las redes trasnacionales de derechos humanos y de defensa de los derechos de la niñez. A partir del relevamiento y análisis de testimonios orales y fuentes escritas de diversa procedencia, en este artículo indagaremos los orígenes históricos del derecho a la identidad y los actores involucrados en su “invención”. Examinaremos también su impacto en la lucha de Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo y su trascendencia más allá de esta causa puntual. Este análisis nos permitirá observar cómo la “invención” de este derecho se produjo en el diálogo entre saberes globales y el activismo local de Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo y entre la especificidad históricamente situada de su causa y la expectativa universalista y transhistórica de los Derechos Humanos.

Abstract This article presents the concept of law from different perspectives, each with its particularities and the influence they currently have on legal systems. The law is not an easy concept to understand, but the way in which it should be applied today must encompass not only the application of the norm or normative statements, but also components of a moral nature, such as principles, all of them on an equal footing. It is not about establishing a hierarchy in the legal and moral elements, but a criterion in which the correction of the legal system leads to Justice. This text is based on a dialectical hermeneutical method, and its purpose is to build a concept of law that meets the standards of correctness and reasonableness, as basic principles to comply with equality and justice.

Resumen Este artículo presenta el concepto de derecho desde diferentes ópticas, cada una de ellas con sus particularidades y la influencia que tienen en la actualidad en los ordenamientos jurídicos. El derecho no es un concepto fácil de entender, pero la forma en que se debe aplicar hoy día debe cobijar no solo la aplicación de la norma o enunciados normativos, sino componentes de índole moral, como los principios, todos ellos en pie de igualdad. No se trata de establecer una jerarquía en los elementos jurídicos y morales, sino un criterio en el cual la corrección del ordenamiento jurídico lleve a la Justicia. Este texto parte de un método hermenéutico dialéctico, y tiene como finalidad ir construyendo un concepto de derecho que cumpla con los estándares de la corrección y la razonabilidad, como principios básicos para cumplir con la igualdad y la justicia.

ABSTRACT Introduction: Chemical substances are widely used in different production processes and applications of modern life; therefore, their use has become widespread. A significant number of them are considered dangerous due to properties or characteristics that can affect the environment and living beings. Disused and expired chemical products (PQOC) accumulation in the oil industry is a problem that dates back several years, so it is necessary to define and apply management options that allow the risks associated with these substances reduction. Objective: To reduce PQOC inventories in the oil industry, through the application of management alternatives. Materials and Methods: The analysis of the PQOC stocks was carried out, taking into account the principles of hierarchy in waste management, which is proposed, after minimizing their generation, use and recovery. Each substance was evaluated for treatment or final disposal solutions application, considering type, quantity, danger, particular characteristics and technical conditions available for run them, in addition to applicable legal requirements. Results and Discussion: Different management options were defined and applied, such as: stabilization of the site, other uses, transfer to other users, energy use, as well as dilution and neutralization. Conclusions: These substances inventories were reduced by 736.2 kg and 201.3 L. Economic and environmental analysis show the feasibility of applying these alternatives, also reducing the risks generated by their prolonged storage.

RESUMEN Introducción: Las sustancias químicas son ampliamente usadas en diferentes procesos productivos y aplicaciones de la vida moderna, por tanto, su uso se ha generalizado. Un número importante de ellas son consideradas peligrosas debido a propiedades o características que pueden afectar el ambiente y los seres vivos. La acumulación de productos químicos ociosos y caducados (PQOC) en la industria petrolera es un problema que data de varios años, por lo que se hace necesario definir y aplicar opciones de manejo que permitan la disminución de los riesgos asociadas a estas sustancias. Objetivo: Disminuir los inventarios de PQOC en la industria petrolera, a través de la aplicación de alternativas de manejo. Materiales y Métodos: Se realizó el análisis de las existencias de PQOC, atendiendo a los principios de jerarquía en la gestión de residuos, que plantean, después de la minimización de la generación, el aprovechamiento y valorización de los mismos. Cada sustancia fue evaluada para la aplicación de soluciones de tratamiento o eliminación final, considerando el tipo, cantidad, peligrosidad, características particulares y las condiciones técnicas disponibles para ejecutarlas, además de los requisitos legales aplicables. Resultados y Discusión: Se definieron y aplicaron diferentes opciones de manejo, tales como: la estabilización del lugar, otros usos, trasferencia a otros usuarios, aprovechamiento energético, así como la dilución y neutralización. Conclusiones: Se redujeron los inventarios de estas sustancias en 736,2 kg y 201,3 L. El análisis económico y ambiental demuestra la factibilidad de la aplicación de estas alternativas, disminuyendo, además, los riesgos generados por su prolongado almacenamiento.