Abstract Objectives Vaginal balloon inflation simulates the compressive forces on the pelvic floor during the second phase of natural delivery. The foremost use of this animal model of vaginal distention (VD) is to study the mechanisms underlying urinary incontinence. As damage to the pelvic floor during natural birth is a common cause of fecal incontinence, the present paper aimed to investigate the effect of VD on defecation behavior in adult rats. Methods Vaginal distention was performed in 8 rats for 2 hours, and in 3 rats for 4 hours, and sham inflation was performed in 4 rats. With the use of a latrine box in the rat home-cage and 24/7 video tracking, the defecation behavior was examined. The time spent in and outside the latrine was monitored for two weeks preoperatively and three weeks postoperatively, and a defecation behavior index (DBI; range: 0 [continent] to 1 [incontinent]) was defined. Pelvic floor tissue was collected postmortem and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Results Vaginal balloon inflation for 2 hours resulted in fecal incontinence in 29% of the animals (responders) whereas the DBI scores of non-responders (71%) and control animals did not change in the postoperative phase compared with the baseline score. A 4-hour balloon inflation resulted in fecal incontinence in 1 animal and caused a humane endpoint in 2 animals with markedly more tissue damage in the 4-hour responder compared with the 2-hour responders. Conclusions Vaginal balloon inflation, with an optimum duration between 2 and 4 hours, can be used as a model to study changes in defecation behavior in rats induced by pelvic floor damage.

Resumen En el presente estudio se ofrece una actualización de la distribución de la especie exótica Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius, 1794) en México, con una metodología que combina datos de colecciones biológicas, redes sociales y ciencia ciudadana. La mosca oriental de las letrinas es registrada por primera vez en 16 estados. Adicionalmente, para facilitar su correcta identificación, proveemos una guía fácil de seguir para comparar esta especie con otras de apariencia similar reportadas en México.

Abstract In the present study we discuss the distribution of the exotic species Chrysomya megacephala (Fabricius, 1794) in Mexico, combining data from natural history collections, social media and citizen science. The oriental latrine blow fly is recorded for the first time in 16 Mexican states. Additionally, we provide an easy-to-follow guide to compare this species with similar looking species recorded from Mexico to help with its identification.

BACKGROUND. It has long been established that human excreta contain over 50 pathogens that are transmitted via the faecal route, yet the common practice of unsafe disposal of children's faeces still persists in developing countries. OBJECTIVE. To identify the factors associated with unsafe disposal of children's faeces among children under three years of age in Eswatini. METHODS. The study was based on combined data for the 2010 and 2014 Eswatini Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, from which 2 765 children aged less than three years were included in the analysis. The analysis was based on logistic regression using weighted survey data. RESULTS. Overall, 41.8% of the childrens' faeces were disposed of unsafely. In the final multivariable logistic regression analysis, the odds of unsafe disposal of children's faeces were lower for households whose children were aged 12 months and older, compared with households whose children were under six months. Households with a pit latrine were less likely to dispose of child faeces unsafely, while the practice of unsafe disposal of children's faeces was more common in households with no toilet facility compared with those from households with a flush toilet. The practice of unsafe disposal of children's faeces was more common in urban areas than in rural areas. Regionally, lower odds of unsafe disposal of children's faeces were observed among households from the Manzini and Shiselweni regions, compared with those from the Lubombo region. CONCLUSION. The study demonstrated that child age, toilet facilities, place of residence, and region of residence were associated with unsafe disposal of children's faeces.

In 2017, 55% of the global population were without safely managed sanitation services. On-site sanitation solutions, such as pit latrines, provide the majority of sanitation coverage across developing countries. Appropriate technologies are required in order to safely empty these latrines without damage to people or the environment. The design of appropriate emptying technologies can be hampered by a lack of knowledge of the mechanical properties of the waste, such as its strength. This paper will develop a calibration for a dynamic cone penetrometer to give accurate measurements of faecal sludge strength against a standard scale, rendering existing data comparable. It will be shown that the maximum shear strengths of faecal sludge found in practice are substantially greater than those previously reported; some pit latrines contain faecal sludge with strength values of 5-20 kPa at the surface, and exceeding 80 kPa at depth.

During an excavation of the remains of a nineteenth-century latrine and garbage pitlocated in the city of Buenos Aires (Argentina), several meters below the current surface of the land, dozens of glass bottles perfectly preserved, originally used as containers for alcoholic beverages, were recovered. Inside one of them is the presence of numerous pupae and empty pupariaeof flies whose analysis revealed that they were saprophagous species (that feed on decaying organic matter)and an adult beetle predator of them, all usually used for the interpretation of funerary archaeological contexts. The preservation of the remains inside a glass bottle makes it necessary to consider why the content of that particular bottle attracted these insectsand enabled the development of their life cycle and satisfy theirtrophic requirements, and also estimating which process of reuse was involved the piece to be associated with the entomological record.

Durante la excavación de los restos de una letrina y un pozo de basura del siglo XIX ubicada en la ciudad de Buenos Aires (Argentina), varios metros por debajo de la superficie actual del terreno se recuperaron docenas de botellas de vidrio perfectamente conservadas, originalmente utilizadas como contenedores de bebidas alcohólicas. Dentrode una botella se hallaron numerosas pupas y puparios de moscas cuyo análisis reveló que se trataba de ejemplares de al menos seis especies saprófagas (que se alimentan de materia orgánica en descomposición) y de un coleóptero adulto depredador de las mismas, todos habitualmente utilizados para la interpretación de contextosarqueológicos funerarios. Supresencia en el interior de una botella ordinaria de vidrio obligó a considerar por qué el contenido de ese recipiente en particular atrajo aestos insectos,cubrió sus requerimientos tróficos y posibilitó el desarrollo de su ciclo de vida, a la vez que estimar en que proceso de reutilización se vio involucrada la pieza para encontrarse asociada a dicho registro entomológico.

Resumo Este artigo avalia a relação de custos entre a saúde pública e a implementação do saneamento básico na capital da Guiné-Bissau. Analisaram-se seis cenários, incluindo três opções para o sistema de esgotamento sanitário (sistema coletivo com rede coletora e estação elevatória de esgoto, sistema simplificado individual por latrina e sistema coletivo completo com rede coletora, estação elevatória e estação de tratamento de esgoto) e duas para o sistema de abastecimento de água (captação direta e sistema completo com captação, reservação e distribuição). Quanto à saúde pública, consideraram-se os custos com recursos humanos e programas de assistência social, medicamentos, vacinas e internações relacionados às doenças de veiculação hídrica, malária e cólera. A relação de custos de 4,29 no cenário mais eficiente de saneamento básico foi similar ao valor encontrado na literatura da área. Em outras palavras, para cada dólar investido no saneamento básico existe uma economia aproximada de 4,3 dólares com a saúde. Além disso, as curvas potenciais da relação de custos, em razão do cenário, são muito úteis em países pobres da África, Ásia e América Latina, regiões que carecem de dados relacionados aos gastos com saúde pública e saneamento básico.

Abstract This paper has assessed the relationship between public health costs and the implementation of basic sanitation in the capital of Guinea-Bissau. Six scenarios have been analyzed, including three sanitary sewage system options (a collective system with a collection network and a sewage collection station, an individual simplified pit latrine system and a full collective system with a collection network, and a lift station and sewage treatment plant), and two water supply system scenario options (direct collection and a complete system with collection, storage, and distribution). Regarding public health, the costs with human resource and social assistance programs, medicaments, vaccines, and hospitalizations related to malaria and cholera waterborne diseases have been considered. The cost ratio of 4.29 for the most efficient basic sanitation scenario was similar to the numbers found in literature. In other words, for every dollar invested in basic sanitation, the approximate savings in health are 4.3 dollars. Also, potential cost-scenario ratio curves are very useful in poor countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, because of the lack of public and basic sanitation expenditure data for these regions.

Resumo Este artigo avalia a relação de custos entre a saúde pública e a implementação do saneamento básico na capital da Guiné-Bissau. Analisaram-se seis cenários, incluindo três opções para o sistema de esgotamento sanitário (sistema coletivo com rede coletora e estação elevatória de esgoto, sistema simplificado individual por latrina e sistema coletivo completo com rede coletora, estação elevatória e estação de tratamento de esgoto) e duas para o sistema de abastecimento de água (captação direta e sistema completo com captação, reservação e distribuição). Quanto à saúde pública, consideraram-se os custos com recursos humanos e programas de assistência social, medicamentos, vacinas e internações relacionados às doenças de veiculação hídrica, malária e cólera. A relação de custos de 4,29 no cenário mais eficiente de saneamento básico foi similar ao valor encontrado na literatura da área. Em outras palavras, para cada dólar investido no saneamento básico existe uma economia aproximada de 4,3 dólares com a saúde. Além disso, as curvas potenciais da relação de custos, em razão do cenário, são muito úteis em países pobres da África, Ásia e América Latina, regiões que carecem de dados relacionados aos gastos com saúde pública e saneamento básico.

Abstract This paper has assessed the relationship between public health costs and the implementation of basic sanitation in the capital of Guinea-Bissau. Six scenarios have been analyzed, including three sanitary sewage system options (a collective system with a collection network and a sewage collection station, an individual simplified pit latrine system and a full collective system with a collection network, and a lift station and sewage treatment plant), and two water supply system scenario options (direct collection and a complete system with collection, storage, and distribution). Regarding public health, the costs with human resource and social assistance programs, medicaments, vaccines, and hospitalizations related to malaria and cholera waterborne diseases have been considered. The cost ratio of 4.29 for the most efficient basic sanitation scenario was similar to the numbers found in literature. In other words, for every dollar invested in basic sanitation, the approximate savings in health are 4.3 dollars. Also, potential cost-scenario ratio curves are very useful in poor countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America, because of the lack of public and basic sanitation expenditure data for these regions.

The study characterized the changes in physico-chemical properties and bacterial community structure during mesophilic anaerobic digestion (AD) of pit latrine sludge. The sludge was sampled from six different pits six times at an interval of 40 days. Standard techniques were used to assess the changes in pollution indicators including COD and faecal coliforms. Metagenomic DNA from a composite sample from the six pits' sludge was then extracted at Days 0, 14 and 35 and directly sequenced followed by analysis of the microbial structure using the Ribosomal Database Project tools. Multivariate analyses were used to identify the main determinants of microbial community structure during the digestion process. AD significantly reduced the levels of pollution indicators (p < 0.05). Total solids, volatile solids and COD were reduced by 17-27%, 52-79%, and 42-63%, respectively. The indicator pathogenic microorganisms FC and E. coli were reduced by 34-54% and 35-60%, respectively. The reduction in terms of COD and BOD were, however, not sufficient to satisfy the standards for safe disposal into the environment. Proteobacteria were the most dominant bacterial phylum in the undigested sludge (24.1%) and were significantly reduced to 2.5% at the peak of the AD (Day 14) up until Day 35. Firmicutes significantly increased (p < 0.05) from 22.4% to 28.8% at Day 14 before being reduced to 11.6% at Day 35. This study contributes to our understanding of AD of pit latrine faecal sludge through mesophilic AD as a baseline study, and helps to inform future research on mesophilic AD.

Resumen La parasitosis intestinal (PI) es un problema de salud pública en países en desarrollo que afecta un cuarto de la población mundial. Las PI son comúnmente estudiadas en niños, olvidando que los adultos están también en riesgo y a su vez pueden ser fuentes de transmisión. Se realizó un estudio de tamizaje con una muestra escogida por conveniencia en tres regiones de Colombia: Guachené (Cauca), Quibdó (Chocó) y Urabá (Antioquia). Las muestras de materia fecal de 284 voluntarios mayores de 18 años, fueron estudiadas por microscopía para identificar parásitos, huevos y quistes. La frecuencia de las PI fue del 14.5%, 52.1% de los positivos fueron hombres. 63.2% de los individuos parasitados tenían asociación significativa con diarrea, y/o dolor abdominal. 39.5% tuvieron infección por un solo parásito y 60.5% fueron positivos para varios parásitos: Blastocystis hominis (63.9%), Entamoeba hystolitica/dispar (39.4%), Endolimax nana (33.3%), Ascaris lumbricoides (22.2%), Giardia lamblia (19.4%), Entamoeba coli (13.9%), Trichuris trichiura (11.1%), Strongyloides stercolaris (5.6%), y Iodamoeba butschlii (2.8%). Se realizó un análisis multivariado para determinar factores predictores para PI: el género masculino, el agua lluvia para consumo, y la disposición de excretas diferente a sanitario, letrina o pozo séptico, están asociados positivamente a la PI. Este estudio evidencia que la población adulta, no solo la infantil, residentes en áreas vulnerables de Colombia, deben incluirse como población de riesgo al parasitismo intestinal.

Abstract Intestinal parasitosis (IP) is a public health problem in developing countries affecting one fourth of the global population. IP are common studied in children, neglecting the adults that are also at high risk and source of transmission. A screening study was performed with a convenience sample in three Colombian regions: Guachené (Cauca), Quibdó (Chocó), and Urabá (Antioquia). Feces samples from 284 volunteers (older than 18 years old) were tested by microscopy to identify parasite ova and cysts. The IP frequency was 14.5%, and 52.1% were males. 63.2% of the parasitized patients exhibited diarrhea, and/or abdominal pain with significant association. 39.5% had single parasitic infection and 60.5% had multiple parasites: Blastocystis hominis (63.9%), Entamoeba hystolitica/dispar (39.4%), Endolimax nana (33.3%), Ascaris lumbricoides (22.2%), Giardia lamblia (19.4%), Entamoeba coli (13.9%), Trichuris trichiura (11.1%), hookworm species (11.1%), Strongyloides stercolaris (5.6%), and Iodamoeba butschlii (2.8%). A multivariate approach was used to determine predictor factors for IP: male gender, rainwater as drinking source, and feces disposal different to toilet, latrine or septic tank were positively associated with infection. This study evidences that adult population, not only children from vulnerable areas of Colombia, must have to include as a risk for intestinal parasitism.

A multiple criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was developed for the selection of sanitation systems. This decision support system was aimed at assisting municipal engineers to design and implement sustainable solutions to meet a municipality's obligation to provide free basic sanitation (FBS). Multi-attribute value theory (MAVT) was selected as the method most suited to the problem under consideration. Criteria which determine the sustainability of sanitation were selected from the literature and a spreadsheet-based MCDA with stakeholder and expert user interfaces was developed. Stakeholders determine the weighting of each indicator and expert users determine the values to be entered for the alternatives against each indicator. The partial values are aggregated using a weighted sum function. Research carried out into the implementation of FBS by the eThekwini Municipality that includes the city of Durban was analysed. This informed the allocation of indicator values to the sanitation alternatives under consideration: ventilated improved pit latrines (VIPs) and urine diversion dehydrating toilets (UDDTs). An innovative scenario analysis method was used to determine the effect of different weightings and/or values, representing changes in stakeholder involvement, resource recovery and political support for ecological sanitation. The MCDA was found to provide a guiding framework for municipal engineers in their efforts to implement sustainable sanitation. The process of deriving values for the MCDA is likely to prove even more useful than the overall value scores of the options under consideration.

Pit latrine contents can have varying consistencies that make the pits challenging to empty. It has been assumed that solids sink to the bottom of the pit with a more liquid layer above this and a scum on the top. This implies that it would be possible to remove the uppermost layers with a pump. However, recent studies have found alternative sludge profiles, including a thick crust on the top. This paper presents penetrometer data from a large number (109) of pit latrines in Kibera, Nairobi, Kenya. The penetrometer consists of a weight, dropped onto an anvil that drives a cone into the pit. The depth of penetration following each impact was measured. This was converted into plots of depth in the pits against penetration. Each pit was analysed using Spearman's rank correlation coefficient, and categorised into positive or negative correlation, significant or non-significant. Significant, negative correlation was assumed to correspond to pits where the solids had sunk to the bottom. 38% of pits were classified in this way, which suggested that while it is common that the number of impacts required to penetrate the sludge increases with depth in the pit, this is not always the case. Pit emptiers should be prepared to deal with pits with a variety of sludge profiles, including those with a solids layer at the top.

Abstract: The cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus (J.A. Allen, 1990) and white-sided jackrabbit Lepus callotis (Wagler, 1830), coexist in the semiarid valley of Perote, Veracruz an area under continuous changes in land use and frequent anthropogenic impact of induced fires. We describe the formation of lagomorphs latrines, their composition, size and distribution as well as the characterization of the vegetation between conserved and fire disturbed sites. Our results show that the size of latrines differed between rabbits and hares as well as between sites. Disturbed sites had consistently more heterogeneous sized latrines. We also recorded that mixed latrines, that contained both rabbit and hare droppings, occurred only 6 months after intense fires occurred. Therefore, S. floridanus and L. callotis have a high plasticity towards habitat changes, even those associated to fire and rapidly use the disturbed habitat despite the temporary loss of vegetation cover.

Resumen: El conejo Sylvilagus floridanus (J.A. Allen, 1990) y la liebre Lepus callotis (Wagler, 1830), que cohabitan en la zona semiárida del valle de Perote, están bajo la continua presión de cambios en su hábitat por el impacto producido por incendios de tipo antrópico. Investigamos cómo el comportamiento de formación de letrinas de estos lepóridos difiere entre sitios con y sin exposición al incendio y cuáles son sus características de tamaño y composición. Nuestros resultados mostraron que el tamaño de las letrinas difiere entre conejos y liebres, y además entre sitios, ya que el sitio perturbado es donde las letrinas fueron más heterogéneas en tamaño. También registramos la presencia de letrinas mixtas en donde los conejos y liebres depositan mayor cantidad de grupos fecales después de 6 meses de haber ocurrido el incendio. Mostramos que S. floridanus y L. callotis tienen amplia plasticidad para aclimatarse a un hábitat perturbado por incendio y usan el hábitat perturbado a pesar de la pérdida temporal de la cobertura vegetal.

Occurrence and survival of pathogens in faecal sludge was investigated in unlined pit latrines at varying depths in peri-urban areas of Kampala city, Uganda. A total of 55 unlined pit latrines, 7 private and 8 rental unlined pit latrines were sampled in the first and second phases (representing the rainy season) and 40 pits in the third phase (representing dry season), and analysed for indicator organisms and pathogens from 4 pit latrine sludge layers, at depths of 0, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 m, following APHA standard methods. Physico-chemical parameters of the faecal sludge were also measured. Three sampling phases were undertaken to determine the effect of seasonal variation. Results indicate that the mean temperature and pH were 25.4 ± 1.14°C and 8.0 ± 1.5, respectively; and moisture content increased with pit sludge depth, except between Depths 3 and 4. Average moisture content was 86.3 ± 3%. The measured parameters varied significantly (P > 0.05) between seasons. The mean reduction in total coliforms, thermo-tolerant coliforms, E. coli, and faecal enterococci with sludge depth was significant at all depths (P < 0.05), but the least significant difference was not significant at depth levels of 1.0 m and 1.5 m. Salmonella was only detected at the top layer of faecal sludge in 60% of Phase 2 samples and in only 20% of the samples in Phase 3. About 200-4 100 eggs/g of strongyles were found in 98% of the samples and 100-1 600 eggs/g of ascarids in 55% of the samples. Temperature, pH and moisture content did not show a significant correlation with observed reductions of indicators and pathogens. With extrapolation of the generated regression models, a pit of 8 m can be recommended for reduction of bacteria. It is recommended that protective field gear be used during pit emptying and that faecal sludge treatment should be done to reduce pathogens before disposal into the environment.

Abstract Diarrhoea is the second leading cause of infectious morbidity and mortality in children under five years of age. This study aimed at identifying the most common parasites and potential risk factors for diarrhoea among children 0-5 years attending Abia State Specialist hospital and Federal Medical Centre, Umuahia, in south eastern Nigeria. We used 400 faecal samples from children with diarrhoea -and 200 without- in combination with hospital-based case control and a questionnaire Stool samples were processed with direct normal saline and formal-ether sedimentation method for parasitological studies. More males than females were infected in nearly all age groups in both diarrhoeal and control groups (X2=23.04, df=1, P<0.05: X2=11.52, df=1, P<0.05 respectively). Amachara had more infections (X2=0.15, df=1, P< 0.05). January had the highest rate of infection (22.5%). Main clinical features were watery depositions over 3 times a day, diarrhoea lasting for days, fever, vomiting, and dehydration. Mothers learned about the problem through health workers, television and in medical centers. Risk correlated with mother’s education, occupation, latrine type, waste water disposal, hand washing, kitchen cleaning; sources and storage of water; and bottle milk (P< 0.05).Ignorance greatly contributed to the spread of parasitic disease in the area: the government should improve education and other strategies to alleviate the spread of the disease.

Resumen La diarrea es la segunda causa principal de morbilidad y mortalidad infecciosa en niños menores de cinco años de edad. El objetivo de este estudio fue identificar los parásitos más comunes y los posibles factores de riesgo para la diarrea entre niños de 0 a 5 años que acuden al hospital especializado del estado de Abia y al centro médico federal Umuahia, al sureste de Nigeria. Se utilizaron 400 muestras fecales de niños con diarrea y 200 sin ella, en combinación con el control de casos hospitalarios y un cuestionario. Las muestras de heces se procesaron con solución salina normal directa y método de sedimentación formaléter para estudios parasitológicos. En los grupos de diarrea y control se infectaron más hombres que mujeres en casi todos los grupos de edad (X2 = 23.04, df = 1, P <0.05: X2 = 11.52, df = 1, P <0.05 respectivamente). Amachara tuvo más infecciones (X2 = 0,15, df = 1, P <0,05). Enero tuvo la mayor tasa de infección (22,5%). Las principales características clínicas fueron deposiciones acuosas más de 3 veces al día, diarrea durante días, fiebre, vómitos y deshidratación. Las madres aprendieron sobre el problema a través de los trabajadores de la salud, la televisión y en los centros médicos. El riesgo está correlacionado con la educación de la madre, ocupación, tipo de letrina, eliminación de aguas residuales, lavado de manos, limpieza de la cocina; fuentes y almacenamiento de agua y la leche en botella (P <0.05). La ingesta contribuyó en gran medida a la propagación de enfermedades parasitarias en el área: el gobierno debe mejorar la educación y otras estrategias para aliviar la propagación de la enfermedad.

The lack of potable water, poor hygiene practices and inefficient sanitation systems in developing countries pose a risk to human health. Pit latrines aim to break the link between human faecal waste and human contact by serving as improved sanitation. The eThekwini Municipality has developed a programme that employs workers to empty pits every 3 to 5 years. This study aimed to find a cost-effective, easy way of disinfecting household surfaces and inactivating Ascaris eggs using household disinfectants, so that transmission of helminths is minimised when pits are emptied. Disinfectants tested in this study were based on sodium hypochlorite or carbolic acid. Experiments simulated inactivation of Ascaris eggs by wiping contaminated surfaces with disinfectants and by soaking small spills in disinfectants. Samples were processed using standard helminth egg enumeration methods for soil and sludge. Wiping of contaminated surfaces removed Ascaris eggs, facilitating egg transfer but not egg inactivation. Prolonged exposure to disinfectants, at concentrations of 50% and above, were required to inactivate eggs. Sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectants were the most successful for inactivation, whilst those based on carbolic acid were mostly ineffective. It is recommended that faecal sludge spills are soaked in a sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectant and contaminated surfaces be wiped with a sodium hypochlorite-based disinfectant-saturated cloth, which should then be soaked for 1 h in a similar disinfectant solution (50% dilution) to inactivate any eggs picked up on the cloth.