RESUMEN La presencia de agrupaciones del crimen organizado transnacional junto a otros aspectos en el contexto penitenciario y las condiciones de infraestructura y de dotación de los centros de rehabilitación social que se conjugan con la sobrepoblación que ocasiona el hacinamiento, se ubican como las principales causas de la crisis del sector penitenciario que ha traído como consecuencia situaciones de extrema violencia. La investigación realizada se enmarca en el estudio de la crisis carcelaria como un problema global, y tiene como objetivo realizar un análisis de la crisis penitenciaria en el Ecuador y la intervención de la cooperación internacional como un mecanismo para coadyuvar en asuntos de seguridad interna, especialmente mediante el apoyo a la lucha contra el crimen transnacional organizado, el cual se ha infiltrado en los centros de privación de la libertad. Mediante el empleo del método de análisis documental, se ha procurado el estudio de la situación carcelaria, la incidencia del crimen organizado y la necesidad de plantear soluciones en la esfera de la cooperación internacional; particularmente se describen los aspectos más relevantes del Programa de Asistencia contra el Crimen Transnacional Organizado Europa Latinoamérica (EL PAcCTO) procurando mostrar las posibles soluciones a la crisis descrita. Como conclusión, se muestra la relación existente entre distintos flagelos como la corrupción y la vulneración de los derechos humanos como aspectos que deberán ser atendidos.

ABSTRACT The presence of transnational organized crime groups, along with other aspects in the prison context, and the conditions of infrastructure and equipment of social rehabilitation centers, which combine with overcrowding, causing overcrowding, are the main causes of the crisis in the prison sector, which has resulted in situations of extreme violence. The research carried out is framed in the study of the prison crisis as a global problem, with the objective of carrying out an analysis of the prison crisis in Ecuador and the intervention of international cooperation as a mechanism to contribute to matters of internal security, especially by supporting the fight against transnational organized crime, which has infiltrated the centres of deprivation of liberty. Using the documentary analysis method, the study of the prison situation and the incidence of organized crime and the need to propose solutions in the field of international cooperation have been attempted, particularly the most relevant aspects of the Assistance Program against Transnational Organized Crime Europe Latin America (EL PAcCTO) are described, trying to show the possible solutions to the crisis described. In conclusion, the relationship between different scourges such as corruption and the violation of human rights is shown as aspects that must be addressed.

ABSTRACT The Metaverse is an endless array of opportunities for new emerging businesses and the new digital world. It is a burgeoning new world, although currently, business is already being conducted through e-commerce. In international business, the Metaverse refers to a shared three-dimensional virtual space where people interact, work, and conduct transactions. Companies are exploring its potential for global collaboration, trade shows, training, and sales. This could change the way business is done by enabling borderless connections and immersive experiences. However, it is still in development, and there are technical, ethical, and security challenges that must be addressed. Therefore, there is much interest in exploring our field of work and investigating new challenges.

RESUMEN El Metaverso es un sinfin de oportunidades para los nuevos negocios emergentes y el nuevo mundo digital, es un nuevo mundo que se encuentra en auge, aunque ya actualmente se realizan negocios por medio de e-commerce, el metaverso en los negocios internacionales se refiere a un espacio virtual tridimensional compartido donde las personas interactúan, trabajan y realizan transacciones. Las empresas están explorando su potencial para colaboración global, ferias comerciales, formación, y ventas. Esto podría cambiar la forma en que se hacen negocios, al permitir conexiones sin fronteras y experiencias inmersivas. Sin embargo, aún está en desarrollo y hay desafíos técnicos, éticos y de seguridad que deben abordarse por lo cual no hace mucho interés para explorar nuestro campo laboral e indagar nuevos retos.

Resumen: Durante la pandemia, desde instancias de poder del sistema migratorio se instrumentaron políticas diferenciales de control y vigilancia con impactos en la salud de los trabajadores, la migración y el empleo. Fueron dispositivos constituidos en biopolíticas dirigidos a garantizar la sobrevivencia de los Estados, sin importar la salud, movilidad y empleo de la gente. El cierre de fronteras y circulación no sólo canceló la migración, sino las formas de ganarse la vida, tanto para migrantes internacionales como para trabajadores locales. Sobre las condiciones de desigualdad preexistentes se desplegaron medidas de seguridad nacional con evidentes dosis de exclusión y xenofobia, producto de un subyacente racismo estructural.

Abstract: During the pandemic, differential control and surveillance policies were implemented from power levels in the immigration system, with impacts on workers’ health, migration and employment. They were devices constituted in biopolitics aimed at guaranteeing the survival of states regardless of the health, mobility and employment of the people. The closure of borders and circulation not only canceled migration, but also the ways of making a living, both for international migrants and local workers. National security measures were deployed on pre-existing conditions of inequality, with evident doses of exclusion and xenophobia, the product of underlying structural racism.

Die artikel plaas die aard van krygskundige navorsing in Suid-Afrika sedert demokratisering in 1994 onder die soeklig. Dit word gedoen binne die breë konteks van die idee van veiligheid; insluitende sowel die internasionale as die Suid-Afrikaanse veiligheidsproblematiek. Die argument, vanuit 'n internasionale veiligheidsperspektief is dat die 1990's tiperend was van die aard van veiligheidsdenke in ná-oorlogsperiodes. Net soos in die 1920's en die laat 1940's was dit 'n periode van idealistiese denke oor veiligheid. Teen die laat 1990's was daar egter 'n terugkeer na groter realpolitik en 'n meer tradisionele benadering met die klem op die rol van die staat en die veiligheidsinstellings in die nastreef van veiligheid. In Suid-Afrika het die verklaarde klem op 'n algemene mensveiligheid egter voortgeduur; ook wat die fokus en aard van navorsing betref. Dit lei tot vrae oor die mate waartoe akademiese navorsing oor veiligheid belyn is met die veiligheidswerklikhede in Suid-Afrika. Wat krygskundige navorsing betref, was die periode ná 1994 vir die Fakulteit Krygskunde van die Universiteit van Stellenbosch 'n periode van groei en ontwikkeling. Die navorsing ontvou veral in die krygskuns eerder as in die krygswetenskaplike omgewing met 'n fokus op krygsgeskiedenis, strategiese studies en internasionale politiek.

The article explores the nature and development of military research in South Africa since 1994. Military research always unfolds within the idea and the broader context of security. Similar to the end of the First and Second World Wars, the end of the Cold War introduced a period of relative peace that translated into a liberal outlook on peace and security in the 1990s. Internationally, the so-called Copenhagen school of security studies suggests a deepening and broadening of the debate on security. Increasingly, strategic studies were replaced by security studies; with the debate on security in the 1990s becoming progressively normative and utopian in nature. By the end of the 1990s, especially after the 9/11 attacks, it was quite clear, however, that security still requires a careful attention of conflict, violence, and war; and that the state and the security institutions remain at the core of the idea of security. At the same time, defining security too widely, and including potentially everything that might negatively affect human affairs, the idea of security runs the risk of being too broad to be of any practical value. By the early 2000s, on an international scale, the focus on military force returned to its rightful place in International Relations (IR) as an area of research and study. South Africa in the 1990s embraced the idea of the deepening and broadening of the debate on security; and the notion of human security, in particular. As was the case under the apartheid regime before 1994, the 1996 White Paper on Defence was used to translate the idea of human security into policy. Unlike the era before 1994, however, the policy directive on human security was never really operationalised by means of an explicit national security strategy document. At face value, there was a declaratory focus by government on human security; in reality, however, thefocus shifted to an emphasis on African security under President Thabo Mbeki, regime security under the Jacob Zuma Administration, and the reality of national security under President Cyril Ramaphosa respectively. In the scholarly domain, however, the focus in research and teaching remained almost exclusively on the non-military and non-state dimensions of the idea of human security. Given this state of affairs, questions ought to be asked about the alignment between research on security in South Africa and the realities of insecurity facing the society at large; as well as to what extent the academic fraternity in South Africa is addressing the nuances of the security realities facing society in their research. As far as military research is concerned, the period after 1994 can be viewed as a period of growth and development for the Faculty of Military Science of the University of Stellenbosch at the Military Academy, Saldanha Bay. Whereas prior to 1994 the Faculty was primarily responsible for the undergraduate teaching of military officers, the focus of the institution shifted towards post-graduate teaching and research in the post-1994 era. This was predominantly due to the process of democratisation and developments in the sphere of global communications. It allowed the Faculty of Military Science to escape from its geographical and institutional isolation and to become integrated into the broader academic fraternity both in South Africa and abroad. The Faculty's research unfolded predominantly in the domain of the art of war rather than military science; with an emphasis on military history, strategic studies and international relations (IR).

Este paper discute determinados recortes de uma pesquisa de mestrado em andamento. O presente trabalho tem o objetivo de analisar perfis de Instagram de mulheres defensoras das armas de fogo como instrumento de autodefesa e mapear as redes que formam. O fenômeno do ativismo feminino “pró-armas” está interligado à ascensão da nova direita, ao sentimento de insegurança e de descrédito em relação às instituições estatais, além do lobby armamentista. Tanto na política institucional quanto na sociedade civil são notórios os discursos de mulheres que representam o uso da arma de fogo como estratégia de autodefesa e também como ferramenta de empoderamento feminino. Consonante a isso, fontes de pesquisa atestam o crescimento significativo das fabricantes brasileiras de armas leves na última década no mercado de segurança internacional. A pesquisa, de caráter qualitativo, se baseia em observação etnográfica oculta em ambiente digital e em Análise de Rede Social (ARS) em fase inicial. Os materiais utilizados foram perfis de Instagram das atrizes e organizações sociais de maior circulação no meio da autodefesa armada feminina. Os resultados têm demonstrado: a articulação de símbolos originalmente feministas de empoderamento a velhos signos de feminilidade hegemônica; propostas de autodefesa armada para as mulheres como estratégia frente à violência contra a mulher; e um paralelo entre o crescimento do mercado armamentista e os perfis de ativismo feminino “pró-armas”, devido aos patrocínios às iniciativas das mulheres.

This paper discusses certain excerpts from an ongoing master's research. The present work aims to analyze Instagram profiles of women defenders of firearms as an instrument of selfdefense and to map the networks they form. The phenomenon of pro-gun female activism is interconnected with the rise of the new right, the feeling of insecurity and discredit in relation to state institutions, as well as the gun lobby. Both in institutional politics and in civil society, the discourses of women who represent the use of firearms as a strategy of self-defense and also as a tool for female empowerment are notorious. In line with this, research sources attest to the significant growth of Brazilian manufacturers of small arms in the last decade in the international security market. The research, of a qualitative nature, is based on ethnographic hidden observation in digital environment and on Social Network Analysis (SNA) in the initial phase. The materials used were Instagram profiles of the actresses and social organizations with the greatest circulation in the midst of female armed self-defense. The results have demonstrated: the  articulation of originally feminist symbols of empowerment with old signs of hegemonic femininity; proposals for armed self-defense for women as a strategy against violence against women; and a parallel between the growth of the arms market and the profiles of pro-gun female activism, due to sponsorships of women's initiatives.

En este artículo se discuten algunos extractos de una investigación de maestría en curso. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar los perfiles de Instagram de mujeres defensoras de armas de fuego como instrumento de autodefensa y mapear las redes que conforman. El fenómeno del activismo femenino pro-armas está interconectado con el ascenso de la nueva derecha, el sentimiento de inseguridad y descrédito en relación con las instituciones estatales, así como con el lobby de las armas. Tanto en la política institucional como en la sociedad civil son notorios los discursos de las mujeres que representan el uso de las armas de fuego como estrategia de autodefensa y también como herramienta de empoderamiento femenino. En línea con esto, fuentes de investigación atestiguan el importante crecimiento de los fabricantes brasileños de armas pequeñas en la última década en el mercado de la seguridad internacional. La investigación, de carácter cualitativo, se basa en la observación etnográfica oculta en un entorno digital y en el Análisis de Redes Sociales (ARS) en la fase inicial. Los materiales utilizados fueron los perfiles de Instagram de las actrices y las organizaciones sociales de mayor circulación en medio de la autodefensa armada femenina. Los resultados han demostrado: la articulación de símbolos de empoderamiento originalmente feministas con viejos signos de feminidad hegemónica; propuestas de autodefensa armada de las mujeres como estrategia contra la violencia hacia las mujeres; y un paralelismo entre el crecimiento del mercado armamentístico y los perfiles de activismo femenino pro-armas, debido al patrocinio de iniciativas de mujeres

ABSTRACT This research aimed to suggest practical strategies for Mexico's economic development through the trend of nearshoring. It involved identifying, analyzing, and organizing the causes of the conflict between China and the USA over international trade and exploring the opportunities that nearshoring to Mexico can offer. Qualitative research methods were applied, and documentary research techniques were used based on two study objects: a) the Sino-American dispute over international trade and b) nearshoring to Mexico. Nearshoring to Mexico is driven by various factors, including tariff benefits from Free Trade Agreements, low labor costs in manufacturing companies, and a stable exchange rate. Therefore, Mexico needs to encourage the development of industrial parks, implement an effective Public Security Policy, offer tax incentives to attract Foreign Direct Investment and improve port, road, and air infrastructure to take full advantage of this trend.

RESUMEN Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo sugerir estrategias prácticas para el desarrollo económico de México a través de la tendencia del nearshoring. Implicó identificar, analizar y organizar las causas del conflicto entre China y Estados Unidos sobre el comercio internacional y explorar las oportunidades que puede ofrecer el nearshoring a México. Se aplicaron métodos de investigación cualitativos y se utilizaron técnicas de investigación documental basadas en dos objetos de estudio: a) la disputa chino-estadounidense sobre el comercio internacional y b) el nearshoring a México. El nearshoring a México está impulsado por varios factores, incluidos los beneficios arancelarios de los Tratados de Libre Comercio, los bajos costos laborales en las empresas manufactureras y un tipo de cambio estable. Por lo tanto, México necesita fomentar el desarrollo de parques industriales, implementar una Política de Seguridad Pública efectiva, ofrecer incentivos fiscales para atraer Inversión Extranjera Directa y mejorar la infraestructura portuaria, vial y aérea para aprovechar al máximo esta tendencia.

Resumen. El objetivo de este artículo es estudiar la tendencia de los crímenes violentos en la Zona Metropolitana del Valle de México (ZMVM), a partir de un análisis espacial y temporal. Para ello, se mapean y estudian tasas de tres delitos violentos que funcionan como variables de análisis: homicidios (en general y con arma de fuego), lesiones dolosas y extorsión. El principal hallazgo es que, en el periodo estudiado, la tendencia delictiva de la ZMVM tiene una considerable concentración en torno a las fronteras entre la Ciudad de México y el Estado de México. Además, los datos revelan hallazgos secundarios sobre tres temas: la ZMVM durante la guerra contra las drogas, las rutas metropolitanas y los mercados ilegales, y la relación entre el crimen violento y el recientemente inaugurado Aeropuerto Internacional Felipe Ángeles. Las conclusiones documentan tanto el peso de las citadas zonas fronterizas en la tendencia general del delito violento en la ZMVM, como la pertinencia de promover una visión metropolitana de la seguridad a lo largo de este espacio.

Abstract. Based on a spatial and temporal analysis, this article aims to study the trend of violent crime in the Metropolitan Zone of the Valley of Mexico (ZMVM). To that end, rates of three violent crimes that function as analysis variables are mapped and studied: homicides (in general and committed with firearms), intentional injuries, and extortion. The main finding is that the criminal trend of ZMVM during the period studied has a considerable concentration around the border dividing Mexico City and the State of Mexico. Also, the data reveals secondary findings over three topics: the ZMVM during the war on drugs, the relation between metropolitan routes and illegal markets, as well as the relationship between violent crime and the recently inaugurated Felipe Ángeles International Airport. The conclusions document the relevance of the border areas in the general trend of violent crime in the ZMVM as well as the relevance of promoting a metropolitan vision of security across this space.

Abstract The aim of this article is to analyse the critical scenario that occurs in article 306 of the Penal Code, which criminalises the offence of usurpation of plant breeders’ rights, based on the figure of the error of prohibition. The way in which peasants incur in this legal situation is analysed, insofar as, as a specially protected group, they depend on traditional practices that they use on a daily basis, as well as on native or creole seeds to guarantee their food sovereignty. The documentary analysis methodology chosen made it possible to study and carry out an external analysis based on a systematic interpretative approach, the set of norms of domestic, international and supranational law on plant varieties, as well as jurisprudence and specialised doctrine in this field. As a contribution, the article concludes that, in a State governed by the rule of law, the error of prohibition as a figure is key for all individuals, including peasants, to act with security and confidence, without fear of being penalised for acts that, in addition to being considered lawful, are fundamental for their subsistence and food sovereignty.

Resumo O objetivo deste artigo é analisar o cenário crítico que ocorre no artigo 306 do Código Penal, que criminaliza o delito de usurpação de direitos de obtentores vegetais, com base na figura do erro de proibição. É analisada a forma como os camponeses incorrem nessa situação jurídica, na medida em que, como grupo especialmente protegido, dependem de práticas tradicionais que utilizam cotidianamente sementes nativas ou crioulas para garantir sua soberania alimentar. A metodologia de análise documental escolhida permitiu estudar e realizar uma análise externa, a partir de uma abordagem interpretativa sistemática, do conjunto de normas de direito interno, internacional e supranacional sobre obtenções vegetais, bem como da jurisprudência e da doutrina especializada nesse campo. Como contribuição, o artigo conclui que, em um Estado de direito, o erro de proibição como figura é fundamental para que todos os indivíduos, o que inclui os camponeses, possam agir com segurança e confiança, sem medo de serem penalizados por atos que, além de serem considerados lícitos, são fundamentais para sua subsistência e soberania alimentar.

Resumen El presente artículo tiene por objetivo analizar el escenario crítico que se da en el artículo 306 del Código Penal, que penaliza el delito de usurpación de los derechos de obtentores vegetales; ello, desde la figura del error de prohibición. Se analiza la forma en cómo los campesinos incurren en esta situación jurídica, en tanto que, como grupo de especial protección, dependen de prácticas tradicionales que a diario utilizan, así como de las semillas nativas o criollas para garantizar su soberanía alimentaria. La metodología de análisis documental escogida permitió estudiar y realizar un análisis externo desde un enfoque interpretativo sistemático, el conjunto de normas de derecho interno, internacional y supranacional sobre obtenciones vegetales, así como la jurisprudencia y la doctrina especializada en este ámbito. Como aporte, el artículo concluye que, en un Estado de Derecho, el error de prohibición como figura es clave para que todos los individuos, incluidos los campesinos, actúen con seguridad y confianza, sin temor a ser penalizados por actos que además de considerar son lícitos, son fundamentales para su subsistencia y soberanía alimentaria.

Resumo A última década mostrou à sociedade mundial - em especial a sociedade sul-americana - os grandes desafios aos quais as democracias estarão submetidas no século XXI. Entre as diversas ameaças observadas no ciberespaço estão as denominadas campanhas de desinformação e as interferências híbridas. Diante disso, esse novo meio digital de sociabilidade da informação tem provocado sérios danos aos pilares democráticos dos Estados, pois a desinformação e as informações falsas têm virado recurso no debate político. Isso posto, o artigo buscará analisar a construção de processos cooperativos na área de segurança e defesa cibernética entre os países sul-americanos entre 2012 e 2020 e seus efeitos na proteção da democracia e do Estado de direito. Defende-se que, devido à dinâmica transfronteiriça do mundo digital e do disseminado alcance de suas ações e consequências, a busca por uma solução a essas demandas perpassa um processo de aprofundamento da cooperação estatal no qual as estratégias de política externa dos Estados são fundamentais para a construção de uma resposta efetiva a esse tipo de ameaça à democracia em âmbito internacional. Nessa perspectiva, compreende-se a interdependência entre os Estados nessa esfera e adota-se uma concepção cooperativa para refletir sobre os obstáculos enfrentados pelos países sul-americanos.

Abstract The last decade has shown the global society, especially South American society, the great challenges that democracies will face in the 21st century. Among the various threats observed in cyberspace are the so-called disinformation campaigns and hybrid interference. As a result, this new digital means of information socialization has caused serious damage to the democratic pillars of states, as disinformation and false information have become a feature of political debate. Based on this, the article seeks to analyze how South American countries are building cooperation in cybersecurity and cyber defense between 2012 and 2020, and what the implications are for the protection of democracy and the rule of law. It is argued that, due to the transnational dynamics of the digital world and the wide reach of its actions and consequences, the search for a solution to these demands goes through a process of deepening state cooperation, in which the foreign policy strategies of states are fundamental for building an effective response to this type of threat to democracy at the international level. From this perspective, we understand the interdependence between States in this sphere and adopt a cooperative conception to reflect on the obstacles South American countries face.

Resumo No presente artigo é realizada uma análise dos principais aspectos que envolvem a privacidade no âmbito digital e dos normativos que tratam do tema e sua evolução, tanto no Brasil como em outros países e blocos, destacando a proteção de dados. Em relação à Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados no Brasil é apresentado um estudo detalhado da evolução da temática no país e a repercussão que a lei ocasionou, em particular quanto à visualização pela necessidade de ampliação da segurança da informação e da governança cibernética no país. São revisitados também fatos ocorridos, tais como o episódio das denúncias de Edward Snowden, que levaram, em conjunto com o advento da Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados, a uma necessidade de ampliar a regulação brasileira que trata da segurança cibernética, trazendo, assim, os aspectos que levaram à elaboração e publicação de uma Política Nacional de Segurança Cibernética no Brasil. São abordados ainda os aspectos relacionados aos levantamentos e auditorias realizados pelo Tribunal de Contas da União, órgão de controle externo do país, visando avaliar as ações e riscos envolvidos quanto àproteção de dados pessoais, no que se refere às ações governamentais, que vêm suscitando a necessidade de que novas regulações sejam editadas e, após postas em vigor, conhecer dados sobre sua implementação.

Abstract This article presents an analysis of the main aspects related to privacy in the digital environment and the regulations that deal with the subject and its evolution, highlighting the issue of data protection both in Brazil and in other countries and blocs. In relation to the General Data Protection Law in Brazil, a detailed study has been carried out on the evolution of the issue in the country and the repercussions that the law has caused, especially in relation to the need to expand information security and cyber governance. Also reviewed are events that occurred, such as the episode of Edward Snowden’s accusations, which, together with the advent of the General Data Protection Law, led to the need to expand the Brazilian regulation that deals with cybersecurity, thus bringing the aspects that led to the elaboration and publication of a National Cybersecurity Policy in Brazil. Aspects related to surveys and audits carried out by the Federal Audit Court, the country’s external control body, are also covered, with the aim of evaluating the actions and risks related to the protection of personal data, in terms of government actions, which raises the need to issue new regulations and, once they are in force, to know data on their implementation.

ABSTRACT Introduction/framework/objectives Informal work has become more prevalent, simultaneously in more and less developed countries, although with very different characteristics, but with particularities capable of modulating in a concrete and relevant way some aspects of Occupational Health and Safety. The aim of this review was to provide professionals working in this area with some knowledge that would allow them to boost their performance and to be able to further expand the range of workers covered. Methodology This is a Bibliographic Review, initiated through a search carried out in May 2023 in the databases “CINALH plus with full text, Medline with full text, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Methodology Register, Nursing and Allied Health Collection: comprehensive, MedicLatina and RCAAP”. Content The term was created between the 1960s and 1970s, by the International Labor Organization, when preparing a report on Kenya and Ghana, when describing poor individuals, with unregistered, recognized, protected or regulated work. In other words, it is the set of activities that generate some income, but are not official; therefore, these are not regulated, nor do individuals have social security protection. Thus, it is associated with companies/family ownership, own resources, small-scale production, unofficial training and non-state regulation. Discussion and Conclusions It both includes extremely well-paid jobs with a lot of autonomy, health and safety in terms of occupational risks; as situations that fall into exactly the opposite, increasing medical problems and accidents at work, in addition to influencing the state economy and other conditions of formal workers. If professionals working in Occupational Health and Safety teams are more aware of these data, they will be better able to cover more workers in their networks, as well as globally improve Health and Safety, working conditions and the standard of living of population.

RESUMO Introdução/enquadramento/objetivos O trabalho informal tem vindo a ser mais prevalente, simultaneamente em países mais e menos desenvolvidos, ainda que com caraterísticas muito diversas entre si, mas com particularidades que têm capacidade para modular de forma concreta e relevante alguns aspetos da Saúde e Segurança Ocupacionais. Pretendeu-se com esta revisão dotar os profissionais a exercer nesta área de alguns conhecimentos que lhe permitam potenciar o seu desempenho e a conseguir alargar mais o leque de trabalhadores abrangidos. Metodologia Trata-se de uma Revisão Bibliográfica, iniciada através de uma pesquisa realizada em maio de 2023, nas bases de dados “CINALH plus with full text, Medline with full text, Database of Abstracts of Reviews of Effects, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Methodology Register, Nursing and Allied Health Collection: comprehensive, MedicLatina e RCAAP”. Conteúdo O termo foi criado entre as décadas de sessenta e setenta, pela Organização Internacional do Trabalho, ao elaborar um relatório relativo ao Quénia e Gana, ao descrever indivíduos pobres, com trabalho não registado, reconhecido, protegido ou regulamentado. Ou seja, é o conjunto de atividades que criam algum rendimento, mas não são oficiais; logo, não são regulamentadas, nem os indivíduos têm proteção da segurança social. Alguns consideram que o Trabalho Informal é uma consequência da globalização e a maior liberdade dos mercados; salientando que estes rendimentos não geravam impostos. Assim, ele está associado a empresas/propriedade familiar, recursos próprios, produção em pequena escala, formação não oficial e não regulamentação do estado. Discussão e Conclusões Tanto incluiu postos de trabalho extremamente bem remunerados e com muita autonomia, salubridade e segurança a nível de riscos laborais; como situações que caiem exatamente no inverso, potenciando os problemas médicos e sinistralidade laboral, para além de influenciarem negativamente a economia do estado e restantes condições dos trabalhadores formais. Se os profissionais a exercer nas equipas de Saúde e Segurança Ocupacionais estiverem mais conscientes destes dados, terão mais capacidade para abranger mais trabalhadores nas suas redes de atuação, bem como, globalmente, melhorar a Saúde e Segurança, condições de trabalho e nível de vida de população.

ABSTRACT The objective of this research aims to accomplish a critical evaluation of the normative frameworks and public policies established for the right to adequate food in Latin America. As a result of the assessment, it is observed that in the countries analyzed, the development of legal and policy frameworks is still required, which must be strengthened and detailed following the most up-to-date international standards, to guarantee the right to adequate food for all people. Without robust legal frameworks, strong institutional capacities, and sufficient transversal mechanisms for the attention to food as a full right, the design and implementation of public policies will not be appropriate and comprehensive and will not have the desired impacts. Deficiencies in the structural supports for regulations and policies generate unequal impacts among the countries of the region that highlight the vulnerability of Latin America.

RESUMEN El objetivo de la investigación fue realizar una evaluación crítica de los marcos normativos y las políticas públicas establecidas para el derecho a la alimentación adecuada en América Latina. Como resultado de la valoración se observa que en los países analizados todavía se requiere del desarrollo de marcos legales y de políticas que es necesario afianzar y detallar de acuerdo con los estándares internacionales más actualizados, con objeto de garantizar el derecho a la alimentación adecuada para todas las personas. Sin marcos legales robustos, capacidades institucionales fuertes y mecanismos transversales suficientes para la atención de la alimentación como derecho pleno, el diseño y la implementación de políticas públicas no serán apropiados e integrales y no tendrán los impactos deseados. Las deficiencias en los sustentos estructurales para la normativa y las políticas generan impactos desiguales entre los países de la región que resaltan la vulnerabilidad de América Latina.

ABSTRACT Cuba faces a complex situation related to the warranty of the pillars of food and nutrition security; due to the international economic crisis, the irrational use of natural resources and the impact of climate change; a situation that gets worse due to the lack of financial resources and the effects of the coronavirus pandemic. In this scene, the Cuban State and Government´s bet to approve the Plan of Food Sovereignty and Nutrition Education and its consequent legal instrumentation, the Law of Food Sovereignty and Food and Nutrition Security. The present article contains the construction process of these legal regulations, the novel methodologies used for their elaboration, and the systematization of good practices and lessons learned in this legislative process.

RESUMEN Cuba enfrenta un contexto complejo para garantizar los pilares de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional; producto de la crisis económica internacional, la utilización irracional de los recursos naturales y el impacto del cambio climático, la cual se acentúa con la carencia de recursos financieros y los efectos de la pandemia del coronavirus. Ante este escenario, el Estado y Gobierno cubanos apostaron por aprobar un Plan de Soberanía Alimentaria y Educación Nutricional y su instrumentación jurídica, la Ley Soberanía Alimentaria y Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional y su Reglamento. El presente artículo aborda el proceso de construcción de estas normas legales, las metodologías novedosas utilizadas para su elaboración, con una sistematización de las buenas prácticas y lecciones aprendidas en este proceso legislativo.

Resumen El uso de armas de fuego provenientes de naciones extranjeras es determinante en la ampliación y aumento de resultados mortales en la dinámica de seguridad latinoamericana. Este documento busca explorar los debates teóricos existentes respecto a este tema en el marco del derecho internacional público. Se propone como hipótesis que, aunque existen elementos de soft law en el derecho internacional público, la implementación de una respuesta jurídico-institucional estaría sostenida únicamente a través del derecho a la seguridad colectiva, el cual no ha sido completamente definido en el derecho internacional. El texto propone que el deber de garantía de los Estados también se relaciona con las responsabilidades de las personas jurídicas de derecho privado en su deber de respetar la normativa, tanto nacional como internacional. Por lo tanto, cualquier esfuerzo futuro para controlar el flujo de armamento implica respuestas coordinadas e intraestatales para otorgar niveles de obligatoriedad al Derecho Internacional.

Abstract The use of firearms from foreign nations is a determining factor in the expansion and increase of lethal results in Latin American security dynamics. This paper seeks to explore the existing theoretical debates on this issue within the framework of public international law. It is proposed as a hypothesis that, although there are elements of soft law in public international law, the implementation of a legal-institutional response would be sustained only through the right to collective security, which has not been fully defined in international law. The text proposes that the duty of guarantee of states also relates to the responsibilities of private law legal persons in their duty to respect both national and international law. Therefore, any future effort to control the flow of armaments implies coordinated and intrastate responses to make international law binding.

Resumen En esta entrevista, el profesor Mark Ungar, especializado en derechos humanos, democracia y seguridad, analiza y explica la importancia de la independencia judicial y un sistema de protección hacia los jueces y juezas. Debido a los constantes escenarios de violencia e intromisión, ya sea interna o externa, en la administración de justicia, es imperante que estos conceptos retomen importancia y se impulsen métodos para asegurar las decisiones judiciales imparciales. Se analiza el tema desde una perspectiva regional, internacional pero también existe un enfoque en la situación nacional.

Abstract In this interview, Professor Mark Ungar, specialized in human rights, democracy and security, analyzes and explains the importance of judicial independence and a system of protection for judges. Due to the constant scenarios of violence and interference, whether internal or external, in the administration of justice, it is imperative that these concepts regain importance and methods are promoted to ensure impartial judicial decisions. The topic is analyzed from a regional and international perspective, but there is also a focus on the specific national situation.