Political empowerment possesses significant potential to facilitate the realization of economic inclusion by allowing marginalized groups to make claims on the state in the pursuit of justice and equality. This is particularly promising for individuals engaged in informal economic activity. Cape Town, South Africa, is in many ways a model for this idea: following its post-apartheid democratization process, governments at the local, provincial, and national levels officially recognize the value of informality and have adopted policies to support it. Yet persistent forms of exclusion for those who engage in informal economic activity remain. This article examines why this is the case. In doing so, it explores the forms of marginalization experienced by migrant and non-migrant workers in the Cape Town's informal food economy and highlights the importance of three factors in explaining why democratization has not translated into greater inclusion: (1) the contours of inequality in the city; (2) the nature of local and national party politics; and (3) the specific dynamics that surround migration and informality. When seeking to translate institutional change into more inclusive forms of development, it emphasizes the importance of paying attention to both open democratic structures and processes and the forms of politics that fill them.

Resumen Esta revisión conceptual analiza exhaustivamente las políticas educativas implementadas en América Latina y el Caribe, y su impacto en el fortalecimiento de sociedades democráticas. Mediante una búsqueda sistemática en bases de datos académicas reconocidas y aplicando criterios rigurosos de inclusión y exclusión, se seleccionaron y validaron fuentes relevantes. Éstas fueron analizadas en profundidad a través de fichas de lectura, resúmenes analíticos y evaluación de su solidez metodológica. Los resultados revelan desafíos significativos, como la desigualdad en el acceso a la educación, la influencia de intereses económicos y políticos y la falta de continuidad en las políticas educativas. No obstante, también se destacan experiencias exitosas y estrategias innovadoras, como la promoción de enfoques pedagógicos críticos, el fortalecimiento de la formación docente y la participación comunitaria en la gestión escolar. Esta revisión contribuye sustancialmente al debate académico y público sobre la relación entre educación y democracia, y ofrece una perspectiva crítica y actualizada que puede orientar a los tomadores de decisiones en el diseño e implementación de políticas educativas más efectivas para el fortalecimiento de sociedades democráticas en la región.

Abstract This conceptual review exhaustively analyzes the educational policies implemented in Latin America and the Caribbean and their impact on strengthening democratic societies. Relevant sources were selected and validated through a systematic search in recognized academic databases and applying rigorous inclusion and exclusion criteria. These were analyzed in depth through reading sheets, analytical summaries, and evaluation of their methodological soundness. The results reveal significant challenges, such as inequality in access to education, the influence of economic and political interests, and the lack of continuity in educational policies. However, successful experiences and innovative strategies are highlighted, such as promoting critical pedagogical approaches, strengthening teacher training, and community participation in school management. This review contributes substantially to the academic and public debate on the relationship between education and democracy. It offers a critical and updated perspective that can guide decisionmakers in designing and implementing more effective educational policies for strengthening democratic societies in the region.

Resumen Este artículo investiga la influencia de factores sociales y económicos en la criminalidad en Guayaquil, Ecuador. Tiene como objetivo determinar la incidencia de estos factores para diseñar un plan estratégico de intervención que permita mejorar la seguridad ciudadana. Se llevó a cabo una investigación con un objetivo mixto, utilizando análisis descriptivo para recopilar datos sobre actos delictivos y la percepción ciudadana. Los resultados destacan la presencia creciente de delitos violentos, como sicariatos y homicidios, y señalan la desigualdad social y cultural como posibles motivadores de la delincuencia. Además, se observa una falta de atención por parte de las autoridades, lo que ha llevado a la comunidad a tomar medidas independientes para garantizar su seguridad. Se destaca la importancia de abordar la delincuencia en relación con indicadores económicos, como el producto interno bruto, que se ven afectados negativamente por el aumento de la criminalidad. Se concluye que los aspectos sociales y económicos son factores que inciden en la criminalidad y constituyen el punto de partida para enfocar las políticas públicas efectivas en materia de seguridad ciudadana en el contexto ecuatoriano.

Abstract This paper investigates the influence of social and economic factors on the crime rate in Guayaquil, Ecuador. The objective is to determine the incidence of these factors to design a strategic intervention plan to improve public safety. A mixed-method research was conducted, using descriptive analysis to gather data on criminal acts and citizen perception. The results highlight the increasing presence of violent crimes, such as contract assassinations and homicides, and point out social and cultural inequality as possible motivators of crime. Additionally, a lack of attention from authorities is observed, leading the community to take independent measures to ensure their safety. The importance of addressing crime in relation to economic indicators, such as Gross Domestic Product, which are negatively affected by the rise in criminal activity, is emphasised. It is concluded that social and economic aspects are factors that impact crime and constitute the starting point for addressing effective public policies regarding citizen security in the Ecuadorian context.

Resumo Este estudo investiga a influência de fatores sociais e econômicos na criminalidade em Guayaquil, Equador. O objetivo é determinar a incidência desses fatores para projetar um plano estratégico de intervenção que melhore a segurança cidadã. Uma pesquisa foi conduzida com uma abordagem mista, utilizando análise descritiva para coletar dados sobre atos criminosos e percepção da população. Os resultados destacam a crescente presença de crimes violentos, como sicariatos e homicídios, e apontam a desigualdade social e cultural como possíveis motivadores do crime. Além disso, observa-se uma falta de atenção por parte das autoridades, levando a comunidade a tomar medidas independentes para garantir sua segurança. Destaca-se a importância de abordar a criminalidade com relação a indicadores econômicos, como o produto interno bruto, que são negativamente afetados pelo aumento da criminalidade. Conclui-se que os aspectos sociais e econômicos são fatores que influenciam a criminalidade e constituem o ponto de partida para direcionar políticas públicas eficazes em segurança pública cidadã no contexto equatoriano.

Resumen La forma en la cual una sociedad gestiona y provee los cuidados necesarios para su supervivencia y reproducción no es neutral al género. Dicha organización funciona, en gran parte, debido a la enorme cantidad de trabajo no remunerado que realizan las mujeres en el ámbito familiar, afectando así su igualdad, libertad y dignidad. Este documento identifica, en primer lugar, los componentes que conforman la organización social de los cuidados en América Latina a partir de tres dimensiones de análisis: (a) sociocultural; (b) política y (c) económica. Y, en segundo lugar, propone una selección de mecanismos que podrían contribuir a transformar los componentes que conforman esa organización. Se toma como punto de partida la propuesta teórica de “implosión de los regímenes de cuidados” de Juliana Martínez Franzoni (2021) para proponer una serie de estrategias que contribuirían a desmontar la actual organización social de los cuidados en la región. El trabajo encuentra que, en forma articulada, estas tres categorías analíticas evidencian la forma bajo la cual se responsabiliza a las mujeres como cuidadoras primarias; ciertas políticas públicas contribuyen a cristalizar roles de género que especializan a las mujeres en el trabajo de cuidados y las relega al mundo doméstico; y finalmente, pone en evidencia que la lógica del mercado laboral responde, principalmente, a un modelo de hombre proveedor sin responsabilidades familiares, lo que contribuye a mantener y reproducir la desigualdad en contra de las mujeres.

Abstract The way in which a society manages and provides the necessary care for its survival and reproduction is not gender neutral. This organization works, for the most part, due to the large amount of unpaid work carried out by women in the family sphere, thus affecting their equality, freedom, and dignity. This document identifies, first, the components that make up the current social organization of care in Latin America based on three dimensions of analysis: (a) sociocultural; (b) political and (c) economic. And, secondly, it proposes a selection of mechanisms that could contribute to transforming the components of that organization. The theoretical proposal of “implosion of care regimes” by Juliana Martínez Franzoni (2021) is taken as a starting point to propose a series of strategies that would contribute to dismantling the current social organization of care in the region. The work finds that, in an articulated way, these three analytical categories show the way in which women are held responsible as primary caregivers; certain public policies contribute to crystallizing gender roles that specialize women in care work and relegate them to the domestic world; and finally, it shows that the logic of the labor market responds, mainly, to a male provider model without family responsibilities, which contributes to maintaining and reproducing inequality against women.

Abstract: Inequality and social injustice have destroyed confidence inhuman nature by creating shameful gaps that touch upon sociocultural, economic, environmental, spiritual, and political aspects that undoubtedly impact learning processes. The aim of this paper is to explore significant aspects of globalization, inequality and social injustice and their impact on education and adult education. Framed within a general qualitative framework, this paper has adopted an exploratory methodology that intends to provide an indepth understanding of the phenomenon. This paper offers a critical and reflexive position aiming at raising a significant level of awareness in an attempt to promote and generate reflection spaces that help in the diminution of social injustices and inequalities in our globalized societies within an educational lens. First, globalization is discussed. Obviously, globalization has brought the world together in a spiral of knowledge, technology, and information. Next, inequality in education is explored: residential schools, the prevalence of racism and the systematic invisibility of minority groups. Additionally, social injustice and movements in adult education are also considered: the Antigonish movement, the frontier college, and the no movement against Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). It is a foregone conclusion that inequality and social injustice have had a tremendous impact on societies and learning settings as well. Finally, neoliberal policies have promoted a very noticeable savage economic Darwinism that privileges commodification, privatization and a public pedagogy that focuses on entrepreneurial subjects.

Resumo: A desigualdade e a injustiça social destruíram a confiança na natureza humana, criando lacunas vergonhosas que afetam aspectos socioculturais, econômicos, ambientais, espirituais e políticos que, sem dúvida, afetam os processos de aprendizagem. O objetivo deste artigo é explorar aspectos significativos da globalização, da desigualdade e da injustiça social e o seu impacto na educação e na educação de adultos. Inserido em um quadro qualitativo geral, este artigo adoptou uma metodologia exploratória que pretende proporcionar uma compreensão aprofundada do fenómeno. Este artigo oferece uma posição crítica e reflexiva com o intuito de aumentar a consciência significativamente na tentativa de impulsionar e gerar espaços de reflexão que ajudem na diminuição das injustiças e desigualdades sociais em nossas sociedades globalizadas dentro de uma lente educacional. Primeiro, a globalização é discutida. Obviamente, a globalização uniu o mundo em uma espiral de conhecimento, tecnologia e informação. Em seguida, a desigualdade na educação é analisada: escolas residenciais, a prevalência do racismo e a invisibilidade sistemática dos grupos minoritários. Além disso, também são consideradas a injustiça social e os movimentos na educação de adultos: o movimento Antigonish, o colégio fronteiriço e o movimento NÃO contra o CAFTA. Seria uma conclusão apressada assumir que a desigualdade e a injustiça social não tiveram um impacto significativo nas sociedades e nos ambientes de aprendizagem. Finalmente, as políticas neoliberais promoveram um darwinismo económico selvagem muito visível que privilegia a mercantilização, a privatização e uma pedagogia pública que se concentra em assuntos empreendedores

Resumen: La desigualdad y la injusticia social han destruido la confianza en la naturaleza humana creando brechas vergonzosas que afectan a aspectos socioculturales, económicos, medioambientales, espirituales y políticos que, sin duda, repercuten en los procesos de aprendizaje. El objetivo de este trabajo es explorar aspectos significativos de la globalización, la desigualdad y la injusticia social y su impacto en la educación y en la educación de adultos. Enmarcado en un marco cualitativo general, este trabajo ha adoptado una metodología exploratoria que pretende proporcionar una comprensión en profundidad del fenómeno. Este trabajo ofrece una posición crítica y reflexiva con el objetivo de crear un nivel de conciencia significativo en un intento de promover y generar espacios de reflexión que ayuden a la disminución de las injusticias y desigualdades sociales en nuestras sociedades globalizadas desde una perspectiva educativa. En primer lugar, se aborda la globalización. Obviamente, la globalización ha unido al mundo en una espiral de conocimiento, tecnología e información. A continuación, se explora la desigualdad en la educación: las escuelas residenciales, la prevalencia del racismo y la invisibilidad sistemática de los grupos minoritarios. Además, también se consideran la injusticia social y los movimientos en la educación de adultos: el movimiento Antigonish, el colegio fronterizo y el movimiento del no contra el Tratado de Libre Comercio de Centro América (TLC). Es una conclusión inevitable que la desigualdad y la injusticia social han tenido un tremendo impacto en las sociedades y también en los entornos de aprendizaje. Por último, las políticas neoliberales han promovido un darwinismo económico salvaje muy notorio que privilegia la mercantilización, la privatización y una pedagogía pública centrada en personas emprendedoras.

ABSTRACT This study explores the complex interaction between migration and inequality in Ecuador, highlighting higher education and Sustainable Development Goal 10 in this context. Migration, driven by the search for better economic and social opportunities, is revealed as both a consequence and a cause of inequalities in the country. The main objective is to determine connections on this relationship, focusing on how SDG 10 can serve as a framework to address these issues. The methodology adopted is multidisciplinary, including demographic analysis, government policy review, interviews and literature review. The results indicate persistent challenges despite government efforts. Migrants, especially vulnerable or marginalized migrants, face discrimination, limited access to essential services and obstacles to integration into society. Irregular migration is associated with human rights violations, exacerbating socioeconomic and educational gaps. This research highlights the urgency of addressing issues related to migration and inequality in Ecuador. Despite the policies implemented, challenges persist that require immediate attention, highlighting the importance of combating discrimination, improving access to essential services such as higher education, and ensuring the protection of migrants' human rights.

RESUMEN Este estudio explora la compleja interacción entre la migración y la desigualdad en Ecuador, destacando la educación superior y el Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible número 10 en este contexto. La migración, impulsada por la búsqueda de mejores oportunidades económicas y sociales, se revela como tanto una consecuencia como una causa de desigualdades en el país. El objetivo principal es determinar conexiones sobre esta relación, centrándose en cómo el ODS 10 puede servir como marco para abordar estas problemáticas. La metodología adoptada es multidisciplinaria, incluyendo análisis demográficos, revisión de políticas gubernamentales, entrevistas y revisión bibliográfica. Los resultados indican desafíos persistentes a pesar de los esfuerzos gubernamentales. Los migrantes, especialmente los vulnerables o marginados, enfrentan discriminación, limitado acceso a servicios esenciales y obstáculos para integrarse en la sociedad. La migración irregular se asocia con la violación de derechos humanos, exacerbando brechas socioeconómicas y educativas. Esta investigación destaca la urgencia de abordar cuestiones vinculadas a la migración y la desigualdad en Ecuador. A pesar de las políticas implementadas, persisten desafíos que requieren atención inmediata, subrayando la importancia de combatir la discriminación, mejorar el acceso a servicios esenciales como la educación superior y garantizar la protección de los derechos humanos de los migrantes.

Resumen El presente trabajo tiene el objetivo de presentar una revisión de las políticas educativas planteadas a partir de entidades supranacionales para reconocer la manera en la que impactan en el desarrollo y transformación del nivel secundaria en América Latina. A partir de una metodología cualitativa de corte documental se encontró que la región aún enfrenta grandes desafíos relacionados con la segmentación educativa y la universalización en vínculo con la atención al acceso, la permanencia y el egreso; los recursos económicos que se destinan al nivel formativo desde las naciones, la capacitación del cuerpo docente y la desigualdad en los sistemas educativos que se presenta como una limitante en su crecimiento. Así, los retos relacionados con la expansión de la secundaria se vinculan con la diversificación, el acceso, la calidad, el rezago y la deserción, por lo que es importante trabajar sobre las agendas nacionales para adaptar los planteamientos de las entidades supranacionales a los requerimientos de cada país, para lograr la atención a las inequidades sociales y favorecer la inclusión educativa.

Abstract The objective of this work is to carry out a study of the educational policies proposed by supranational entities -considering the Declaration of Education for All, the World Forum on Education, and the current 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development- and analyze how they impact the development and transformation of the secondary level in Latin America. Based on a qualitative documentary methodology, it was found that the region still faces great challenges related to educational segmentation and universalization in connection with care for access, permanence, and graduation; the economic resources that are destined to the formative level from the nations, the training of the teaching body and the inequality in the educational systems, which is presented as a limitation in its expansion. Thus, the challenges related to the expansion of secondary education are linked to diversification, access, quality, lag, and dropout, so it is important to work on national agendas to adapt the approaches of supranational entities to the requirements of each country, thereby achieving attention to social inequities, and favoring educational inclusion.

Resumen: La lechería uruguaya presenta la oportunidad de mejorar la competitividad en la productividad de leche. Sin embargo, la intensificación aumenta el riesgo de elevar el excedente de nitrógeno (N) y la contaminación ambiental. Este estudio evaluó las entradas y salidas de N predial, N excedente (entrada-salida) y eficiencia de uso de N (NUE=salida/entrada) de 17 sistemas modales (encuestas nacionales 2014-2019), y 6 sistemas intensificados basados en estudios experimentales de alta productividad de leche por hectárea en secano. Los sistemas lecheros actuales mantuvieron un N excedente de 71 kg N ha-1 entre 2014 y 2019 (rango: 44-97 kg N ha-1), y mejoraron la NUE de 28,3 a 30,5% (rango: 20-35%). De nuestro análisis se destacan tres puntos: (i) el N excedente comparativamente bajo de la lechería uruguaya actual, (ii) las relaciones no lineales entre N excedente y carga animal, consumo de alimento, productividad de la leche e ingreso de capital, y (iii) la contribución desigual entre los sistemas lecheros al excedente nacional de N de la lechería refleja principalmente la disparidad en el tamaño de los predios. Estos hallazgos evidencian la necesidad crucial de entender el destino real de los excedentes de N: lixiviación de nitratos, volatilización de amoníaco, desnitrificación de N2 o acumulación de N en materia orgánica del suelo. Este es un requisito ineludible para diseñar prácticas y políticas de gestión capaces de optimizar efectivamente la sostenibilidad económica y ambiental de la lechería uruguaya.

Resumo: A pecuária leiteira uruguaia apresenta a oportunidade de melhorar a competitividade na produtividade do leite. No entanto, a intensificação aumenta o risco de elevar o excesso de nitrogênio (N) e a poluição ambiental. Este estudo avaliou as entradas e saídas de N na propriedade, o excesso de N (entrada-saída) e a eficiência de uso de N (NUE = saída/entrada) de 17 sistemas modais (pesquisas nacionais 2014-2019) e seis sistemas intensificados com base em estudos experimentais de alta produtividade de leite por hectare em sequeiro. Os sistemas leiteiros atuais mantiveram um excesso de N de 71 kg N ha-1entre 2014 e 2019 (faixa: 44-97 kg N ha-1) e melhoraram a NUE de 28,3% para 30,5% (faixa: 20-35%). De nossa análise, destacam-se três pontos: (i) o excesso de N comparativamente baixo na pecuária leiteira uruguaia atual, (ii) relações não lineares entre o excesso de N e carga animal, consumo de alimentos, produtividade do leite e entrada de capital, e (iii) a contribuição desigual entre os sistemas leiteiros para o excesso nacional de N da pecuária leiteira reflete principalmente a disparidade no tamanho das propriedades. Essas descobertas evidenciam a necessidade crucial de entender o destino real dos excessos de N: lixiviação de nitratos, volatilização de amônia, desnitrificação para N2 ou acumulação de N na matéria orgânica do solo. Este é um requisito inegociável para projetar práticas e políticas de gestão capazes de otimizar efetivamente a sustentabilidade econômica e ambiental da pecuária leiteira uruguaia.

Abstract: Uruguay´s dairy can potentially enhance milk productivity competitively, but intensification risks elevating nitrogen (N) surplus, heightening environmental concerns. This study quantified farm-gate N inputs and outputs, calculating N surplus (input-output) and N use efficiency (NUE=output/input) for 17 commercial modal dairy systems identified in the 2014 and 2019 national surveys and six prospective intensified systems based on experimental pastoral farmlets achieving near-maximal rainfed productivity. Current dairy systems maintained N surplus at 71 kg N ha-1 between 2014 and 2019 (range: 44-97 kg N ha-1) while improving NUE from 28.3 to 30.5% (range: 20-35%). Intensification increased N surplus without necessarily reducing NUE. Our analyses highlight three aspects: (i) comparatively low N surplus of current Uruguayan dairy, (ii) nonlinear links between N surplus and stocking rate, feed intake, milk productivity and operating profit, and (iii) inequality between dairy systems in their contribution to national dairy N surplus reflects mainly disparity in farm size. These insights underscore the crucial need for understanding the actual fate of N surpluses: nitrate leaching, ammonia volatilisation, N2 denitrification, or N accumulation in soil organic matter. This is an unavoidable requisite for designing management practices and policies able to effectively optimise the economic and environmental sustainability of Uruguayan dairy.

BACKGROUND: The persistent and high levels of inequality in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) pose significant challenges to achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 10, which aims to reduce inequality. AIM: This study examines the combined effect of effective VAT (calculated as total VAT revenues divided by final consumption, reflecting the economic incidence of the tax) and ethnic fragmentation on income inequality in SSA. SETTING: The analysis covers 35 SSA countries from 1995 to 2021, based on Kripfganz and Schwarz's (2019) dynamic panel estimator of time-invariant effects. METHOD: This study utilises the system generalised method of moments (SGMM) estimation to achieve its objective. The analysis covers 35 SSA countries from 1995 to 2021, based on Kripfganz and Schwarz's (2019) dynamic panel estimator of time-invariant effects. RESULTS: The findings indicate that effective VAT increases income disparity in both the short and long-run, with the long-run effect being more pronounced. Additionally, the findings suggest that ethnic-fragmentation amplifies the positive impact of effective VAT on income inequality over both time horizons, with a stronger effect in the long run. This suggests that ethnic-fragmentation hinders the ability of effective VAT to lower income disparity in SSA. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that prioritising policies to strengthen the tax system and enhance social cohesion should be a focus in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). CONTRIBUTION: This study adds significant value to the literature by demonstrating the role of effective VAT on the relationship between ethnic fragmentation and income inequality in SSA. To solve the endogeneity issues, this study uses SGMM, incorporating forward orthogonal deviations, which distinguishes it from the traditional SGMM approach that does not account for these deviations (Roodman 2009a).

BACKGROUND: The participation of female labour is essential for promoting industrialisation. North African economies are plagued by low levels of female labour force participation (FLP) and high gender inequality gaps. Low levels of FLP are detrimental to the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals, such as gender equality, decent work, and economic growth, as well as reduced inequalities AIM: This research aimed to establish the determinants of FLP in North Africa SETTING: North Africa METHOD: The research adopted the Panel Auto Regressive Distributed Lag. Data were sourced from the World Bank for the period 1991-2021 RESULTS: The empirical findings showed that the lack of gender-sensitive policies, limited investment in education and institutional barriers limit the capacity of women to participate in the labour market. Primary research findings depicted that the Human Development Index (HDI), fertility rate and life expectancy had a positive impact on FLP in the long run. Economic growth had a positive effect on FLP in the short run CONCLUSION: It was concluded that North African governments need to develop policies that advance the interests of women, as well as the implementation of women empowerment programmes CONTRIBUTION: The findings of the study imply that addressing FLP requires collaborative efforts from the governments and other stakeholders and this helps in reducing gender inequality

Neoliberal policies since 1978 have caused severe regional inequality in China. Cities in regions with high levels of marketisation attract top academic experts due to their proximity to economic incentives and prestigious universities. However, little is known about how economic reform has shaped the distribution of experts in the social science and humanities disciplines as they are less in demand on the market and often rely on support from the state. Using sociology as a unique case, this study investigates market and state influences on the regional distribution of sociology experts in Chinese universities based on city-level measurements. Sociology has a unique historical and paradigmatic connection with the state of China, which complicates any straightforward relationship between neoliberal policies and higher education inequality in sociology departments. Through a manual collection of 1,041 faculty profiles from 66 university websites, it was determined following the fractional logistic regression method that both the market and the state facilitate distribution. The city's marketisation increases the intemationalisation of faculty members in sociology departments, while the city's position in the state's administrative hierarchy maintains the sociology departments, regardless of the city's marketisation. In general, the state still plays an important role in shaping academic expert distribution after 40 years of market reform in China.

Resumen Este trabajo examina cómo las variaciones en la estatura y la salud de los mexicanos durante la segunda mitad del siglo XX son un reflejo de la evolución de la desigualdad económica pues sus efectos repercuten en las condiciones de salud y alimentación de la población. La estatura promedio de adultos mexicanos tuvo un aumento modesto con respecto a las posibilidades de la plasticidad humana. Estas variaciones antropométricas fueron resultado de la incorporación de avances en ciencia y tecnología conducentes a mejorar los niveles de vida de la población. Los cambios corporales fueron impactados por hábitos alimenticios, de urbanización y políticas gubernamentales de apoyo a la producción y distribución de alimentos. población humana alimenticios alimentos

Abstract This paper examines how variations in the height and health of Mexicans during the second half of the twentieth century reflect the evolution of economic inequality, as its effects have repercussions on the health and nutritional conditions of the population. The average height of Mexican adults had a modest increase with respect to the possibilities of human plasticity. These anthropometric variations were the result of the incorporation of advances in science and technology leading to improved standards of living among the population. Body changes were impacted by dietary habits, urbanization, and government policies supporting food production and distribution. inequality population plasticity habits urbanization distribution

Resumo A resiliência da mobilidade urbana é um tema emergente, com a maioria dos estudos focando em desastres naturais ou distúrbios técnicos. No entanto, há uma lacuna na compreensão da resiliência e da vulnerabilidade da mobilidade urbana diante de ameaças econômicas e políticas de transporte inadequadas, principalmente em países em desenvolvimento, como o Brasil, caracterizados por desigualdade social e segregação urbana. Este estudo lança luz sobre a questão das desigualdades e da segregação urbana, com o objetivo de identificar as áreas mais vulneráveis e resilientes do Rio de Janeiro, no caso de uma crise econômica. Avaliamos a resiliência e a vulnerabilidade do sistema de transporte público usando indicadores de acessibilidade comumente usados, aplicando lógica difusa a dados de 160 distritos. Consideramos um cenário sem o programa de subsídio tarifário. Os resultados indicam que os distritos com melhor acesso a sistemas de transporte de alta capacidade e oportunidades de emprego apresentam níveis mais elevados de resiliência e menor vulnerabilidade. No entanto, o estudo também revela desigualdades socioespaciais, com valores de resiliência tendendo a ser maiores nas áreas costeiras e nos distritos centrais de negócios, exacerbando as disparidades. É evidente que enfrentar as desigualdades urbanas e a segregação requer não apenas melhorar os tempos de viagem e os sistemas de transporte, mas também considerar o impacto econômico nas populações vulneráveis e promover oportunidades de emprego descentralizadas. emergente técnicos entanto inadequadas desenvolvimento Brasil Janeiro econômica usados 16 tarifário socioespaciais negócios disparidades descentralizadas 1

Abstract Resilience of urban mobility is an emerging topic, with most studies focusing on natural disasters or technical disturbances. However, there is a gap in understanding the resilience and vulnerability of urban mobility in the face of economic threats and inadequate transport policies, particularly in developing countries such as Brazil, characterized by social inequality and urban segregation. This study sheds light on the issue of urban inequalities and segregation, aiming to identify the most vulnerable and resilient areas of Rio de Janeiro in the event of an economic crisis. We assessed the resilience and vulnerability of the public transport system with commonly used accessibility indicators, applying fuzzy logic to data from 160 districts. We considered a scenario without the fare subsidy program. The results indicate that districts with better access to high-capacity transport systems and job opportunities exhibit higher levels of resilience and lower vulnerability. However, the study also uncovers socio-spatial inequalities, with resilience values tending to be higher in coastal areas and central business districts, exacerbating disparities. Addressing urban inequalities and segregation requires not only improving travel times and transportation systems but also considering the economic impact on vulnerable populations and promoting decentralized employment opportunities. topic disturbances However policies Brazil crisis indicators 16 program highcapacity high capacity sociospatial socio spatial disparities 1

Resumo Este estudo objetiva analisar os retratos da desigualdade socioeconômica de três Zonas Especiais de Interesse Social (ZEIS) nos anos de 2010 e 2019. Para tal, foram coletados dados primários, qualitativos e quantitativos, e secundários de três ZEIS da cidade de Fortaleza-CE. Reconhecendo a necessidade de ampliação da análise da desigualdade para além dos rendimentos individuais, foram investigadas as infraestruturas de ativos físicos, humanos, sociais e ambientais presentes nas ZEIS. Os resultados revelam que a ausência de serviços públicos e a pobreza crônica presentes nas ZEIS alimentam um processo de manutenção de desigualdades. Ao longo da última década, observou-se um desarranjo na estrutura de oportunidades sociais, fruto da oferta deficitária de serviços essenciais, de empregos formais e do enfraquecimento dos vínculos sociais. Em conjunto, esses fatores ressaltam a manutenção de um estado de vulnerabilidade social dos moradores das ZEIS, especialmente para mulheres e pessoas com menor escolaridade. Políticas públicas voltadas às ZEIS devem integrar diferentes âmbitos e elementos sociais às demandas mais urgentes suscitadas pelas próprias comunidades para promover mudanças sociais significativas. (ZEIS 201 2019 tal primários quantitativos FortalezaCE. FortalezaCE Fortaleza CE. CE Fortaleza-CE individuais físicos humanos desigualdades década observouse observou se essenciais conjunto escolaridade significativas 20 2

Abstract This study aims to analyze the portraits of socio-economic inequality in three Special Zones of Social Interest (ZEIS) in the years 2010 and 2019. Data, both primary (qualitative and quantitative) and secondary, were collected from three ZEIS located in Fortaleza-CE. To provide a comprehensive analysis of inequality, the study also investigated the physical, human, social, and environmental aspects within these ZEIS. The findings indicated that the absence of public services and the persistent poverty within study ZEIS contribute to the perpetuation of inequalities. Over the past decade, there has been a deterioration in social opportunities due to inadequate access to essential services, limited formal employment opportunities, and weakening social connections. Consequently, the vulnerability of ZEIS residents has been perpetuated, with women and individuals with lower levels of education being particularly affected. To bring about meaningful social changes, public policies targeting ZEIS must encompass various aspects and prioritize the pressing needs identified by the communities themselves. This integration of different spheres and social elements is crucial for promoting significant improvements in these areas socioeconomic socio economic (ZEIS 201 2019 Data qualitative quantitative secondary FortalezaCE. FortalezaCE Fortaleza CE. CE Fortaleza-CE physical human inequalities decade connections Consequently perpetuated affected changes themselves 20 2

RESUMEN El concepto de desigualdad social es inherente al ideario del desarrollo económico, sin embargo, los autores clásicos rara vez se refieren explicitamente al tema. Esta falta de citas confunde la percepción y provoca una interpretación errónea de que hubo un menosprecio a la distribución de la renta en la elaboración de la teoria del desarrollo. Bresser-Pereira, en la construcción del nuevo desarrollismo, elabora y amplia el énfasis en la desigualdad social. Este artículo expone la visión del autor y propone una línea de investigación con el objetivo de incorporar consistencia a la teoría para la formulación de políticas sociales compatibles con el proyecto nuevo desarrollista. económico embargo tema BresserPereira, BresserPereira Bresser Pereira, Pereira Bresser-Pereira desarrollismo desarrollista

RESUMO O conceito de desigualdade social é inerente ao ideário do desenvolvimento econômico, no entanto os autores clássicos dificilmente se referiam explicitamente ao tema. Essa ausência de citação confunde a percepção e provoca uma interpretação equivocada de que houve um menosprezo à distribuição de renda na elaboração da teoria desenvolvimentista. Bresser-Pereira, na construção do Novo Desenvolvimentismo, elabora e amplia a ênfase à desigualdade social. Este artigo expõe essa visão do autor e propõe uma linha de pesquisa com o objetivo de incorporar à teoria uma consistência para a formulação de políticas sociais compatíveis com o projeto novo-desenvolvimentista. econômico tema desenvolvimentista BresserPereira, BresserPereira Bresser Pereira, Pereira Bresser-Pereira Desenvolvimentismo novodesenvolvimentista. novodesenvolvimentista novo novo-desenvolvimentista

ABSTRACT The concept of social inequality is intrinsic to the ideas of economic development. However, classical authors rarely addressed this topic explicitly, leading to the misconception that income distribution was disregarded in the formulation of developmentalism. In formulating new developmentalism, Bresser-Pereira approaches and expands on the issue of social inequality. This article presents Bresser-Pereira’s vision and proposes a line of research to contribute to his efforts and support the formulation of social policies compatible with new developmentalism. development However explicitly developmentalism BresserPereira Bresser Pereira BresserPereiras s