Resumo A resistência induzida por plantas pode ser um importante componente dos programas de controle biológico de ácaros da soja. Este trabalho avalia a preferência do ácaro predador Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) às plantas de soja sob condições de herbivoria simples e múltipla pelo ácaro-rajado Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae) e pela lagarta-da-soja Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Utilizando o olfatômetro Y, foram avaliados os seguintes cenários: soja sem infestação e soja infestada com A. gemmatalis; soja infestada com T. urticae e A. gemmatalis, e soja infestada com T. urticae e com T. urticae e A. gemmatalis. Os compostos voláteis liberados pelas plantas foram analisados e identificados por um cromatógrafo gasoso Trace GC Ultra acoplado a um espectrômetro de massas com uma armadilha de íons de microextração em fase sólida. O ácaro predador N. californicus preferiu plantas de soja infestadas com T. urticae em relação àquelas infestadas com A. gemmatalis. A infestação múltipla não interferiu na preferência por T. urticae. A herbivoria múltipla de T. urticae e A. gemmatalis modificou o perfil químico de compostos voláteis emitidos por plantas de soja. No entanto, não interferiu no comportamento de busca de N. californicus. Dos 29 compostos identificados apenas cinco promoveram resposta de ácaros predadores. Assim, independentemente da herbivoria simples ou múltipla por T. urticae com ou sem A. gemmatalis, os mecanismos de resistência induzida indiretamente operam de forma semelhante. Assim, esse mecanismo biológico contribui para o aumento da taxa de encontro entre predador e presa para N. Californicus e T. urticae, e para a eficácia do controle de ácaros em soja. Acari (Acari Phytoseiidae ácarorajado rajado Tetranychidae lagartadasoja lagarta Lepidoptera (Lepidoptera Noctuidae. Noctuidae . Noctuidae) Y cenários T sólida N entanto 2 predadores Assim semelhante

Abstract Plant-induced resistance can be an important component of soybean mites biological control programs. This work evaluates the preference of predatory mite Neoseiulus californicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae) to soybean plants under single and multiple herbivory conditions by two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae (Acari: Tetranychidae), and velvetbean caterpillar Anticarsia gemmatalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Using a Y olfactometer, the following scenarios were evaluated: soybean with no infestation and soybean infested with A. gemmatalis; soybean infested with T. urticae and A. gemmatalis, and soybean infested with T. urticae and with both T. urticae and A. gemmatalis. Volatile compounds released by plants were analyzed and identified by a Trace GC Ultra gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer with a solid phase micro-extraction ion-trap. The predatory mite N. californicus preferred soybean plants infested with T. urticae compared to those infested with A. gemmatalis. Multiple infestation did not interfere with its preference to T. urticae. Multiple herbivory of T. urticae and A. gemmatalis modified the chemical profile of volatile compounds emitted by soybean plants. However, it did not interfere with the search behavior of N. californicus. Out of the 29 identified compounds only five promoted predatory mite response. Thus, regardless of single or multiple herbivory by T. urticae with or without A. gemmatalis, the indirect induced resistance mechanisms operate similarly. As such, this mechanism contributes to an increase in the encounter rate between predator and prey for N. Californicus and T. urticae, and the efficacy of biological control of mites on soybean. Plantinduced Plant programs Acari (Acari Phytoseiidae twospotted two spotted Tetranychidae, Tetranychidae , Tetranychidae) Lepidoptera (Lepidoptera Noctuidae. Noctuidae . Noctuidae) olfactometer evaluated A T microextraction micro extraction iontrap. iontrap ion trap. trap ion-trap N However 2 response Thus similarly such

Abstract Sugarcane is a crop of major importance used mainly for sugar and biofuel production, and many additional applications of its byproducts are being developed. Sugarcane cultivation is plagued by many insect pests and pathogens that reduce sugarcane yields overall. Recently emerging studies have shown complex multitrophic interactions in cultivated areas, such as the induction of sugarcane defense-related proteins by insect herbivory that function against fungal pathogens that commonly appear after mechanical damage. Fungi and viruses infecting sugarcane also modulate insect behavior, for example, by causing changes in volatile compounds responsible for insect attraction or repelling natural vector enemies via a mechanism that increases pathogen dissemination from infected plants to healthy ones. Interestingly, the fungus Fusarium verticillioides is capable of being vertically transmitted to insect offspring, ensuring its persistence in the field. Understanding multitrophic complexes is important to develop better strategies for controlling pathosystems affecting sugarcane and other important crops and highlights the importance of not only studying binary interactions but also adding as many variables as possible to effectively translate laboratory research to real-life conditions.

Resumo Este artigo discute os riscos hidrológicos do município de São Paulo como uma construção histórica e social resultante de um planejamento da urbanização que desconsiderou as dinâmicas hidrológicas, não previu espaço para as populações vulneráveis, privilegiou a mobilidade, a expansão e a valorização fundiária. Apoia-se em fontes indiretas (leis, teses e artigos acadêmicos) e discute o Sistema Municipal de Defesa Civil à luz dos marcos vigentes e dos entes responsáveis pela gestão de riscos de desastres naturais. A gestão de riscos é tratada como questão emergencial, subordinada à Secretaria Municipal de Segurança. Com uma estrutura frágil, sem elementos básicos, desdenha seu passivo histórico e ambiental e expõe o afastamento do Estado sob a ação das políticas neoliberais.

Abstract The article discusses hydrological risks of the city of São Paulo as a historical and social construction deriving from an urbanization planning that disregarded the hydrological dynamics, did not provide space for vulnerable populations, favored mobility and urban expansion, and increased land value. It is supported by indirect sources (laws, theses, academic articles) and discusses the Municipal Civil Defense System in the light of current frameworks and entities responsible for managing risks of natural disasters. Risk management is treated as an emergency issue, subordinated to the Municipal Security Department. With a fragile structure that lacks basic elements, it disdains its historical and environmental liabilities and exposes the State’s withdrawal under the action of neoliberal policies.

RESUMO: O artigo aborda o tratamento dado à formação docente nos planos municipais de educação. Tem como objetivo analisar o comprometimento dos municípios com a formação específica de nível superior e suas possíveis aproximações com tendências de flexibilização da formação inicial do professor. A pesquisa, de caráter predominantemente documental, abarcou dez planos municipais de educação da região Norte do estado do Tocantins e levantou informações correspondentes ao que preconiza a Meta 15 do PNE (2014). Constata-se, nas proposições do planejamento educacional local, maior adesão ou repercussão das demandas que tiveram origem no plano nacional e menor incidência de iniciativas próprias. Parte significativa dos planos municipais analisados adota uma postura de comprometimento indireto ou parcial com a formação específica de nível superior, tornado menos evidente o indicador que revela o cumprimento da meta. Constata-se, ainda, uma razoável aceitação ou repercussão de tendências de caráter tecnicistas para a formação do professor, enfatizando a valorização de experiências práticas e ignorando a defesa da formação universitária/teórica/científica e crítica.

ABSTRACT: The present paper addresses the treatment given to teacher training in municipal education plans. It aims to analyze the municipalities’ commitment to specific higher education training and its possible approximations with the tendency to make initial teacher training more flexible. The research, predominantly documental in nature, covered ten municipal education plans in the northern region of the state of Tocantins and collected information corresponding to what is recommended by Goal 15 of the PNE (2014). It is observed, in the proposals of the local educational planning, greater adherence or repercussion of the demands that originated in the national plan and a lower incidence of own initiatives. A significant part of the analyzed municipal plans adopts a posture of indirect or partial commitment to specific higher education, making the indicator that reveals the fulfillment of the goalless evident. There is also a reasonable acceptance or repercussion of technicist tendencies for teacher training, emphasizing the value of practical experiences and ignoring the defense of university/theoretical/scientific and critical training.

RESÚMEN: El artículo analiza el tratamiento dado a la formación del profesorado en los planes de educación municipal. Su objetivo es analizar el compromiso de los municipios con la formación específica de la educación superior y sus posibles aproximaciones con tendencias de flexibilidad en el desarrollo académico profesional del docente. La investigación, de carácter predominantemente documental, cubrió 10 (diez) planes de educación municipal en la región norte del estado de Tocantins y recabó información correspondiente a lo que defiende el Objetivo 15 (2014) del PNE. En las propuestas locales de planificación educativa, existe una adherencia significativa a las demandas que se originaron a nivel nacional y una baja incidencia de iniciativas propias. También se observa que una parte importante de los planes municipales analizados adopta una actitud de compromiso indirecto con la educación superior específica, sin establecer los pasos y plazos para lograr el objetivo. También existe una aceptación o repercusión razonable de las tendencias, de carácter técnico, que ponen en perspectiva la importancia de la educación universitaria, con una sólida solidez teórica, científica y crítica de los fundamentos de la educación y que enfatizan la valorización de las experiencias prácticas.

RESUMO: Embora o Nordeste do Brasil seja considerado livre de Febre Aftosa (FA) com a vacinação, ainda são registrados vários prejuízos econômicos e sanitários devido à ocorrência de síndromes vesiculares que precisam ser adequadamente avaliadas, como Estomatite Vesicular (EV). Portanto, este estudo teve como objetivo confirmar a ocorrência desta doença e determinar o sorotipo viral predominante em casos suspeitos notificados ao Serviço Veterinário Oficial do Ceará no ano de 2013 realizando protocolos oficiais de diagnóstico recomendados pela Organização Mundial de Saúde Animal. Após investigação clínica e epidemiológica em 46 propriedades rurais, foram considerados 32 casos prováveis de propriedade foco de EV com 78 animais amostrados, sendo 65 bovinos e 13 equídeos. Amostras de soro (54) e epitélio (24) foram coletadas. Análises sorológicas de 6 (14,6%) de 41 bovinos e 8 (61,5%) de 13 equídeos apresentaram soroconversão ao Vesiculovírus Indiana (VVI) por neutralização viral. O VVI foi detectado em 15 (62,5%) de 24 epitélios bovinos usando ELISA indireto sanduíche. Por fim, amostras de epitélio positivas foram submetidas a subtipagem viral por fixação do complemento que identificou a ocorrência do sorotipo Indiana III (Alagoas/VVI-3) em 11 (73,3%) de bovinos. Estes foram os primeiros casos confirmados de EV no estado do Ceará com diagnóstico oficial de VVI-3 confirmando o caráter endêmico atribuído ao Estado por meio de levantamentos sorológicos não oficiais anteriores. A presença de EV é um desafio diagnóstico contínuo, dado o risco de possíveis incursões de FA. A Estomatite Vesicular é recorrente e preocupante nesta área livre de FA com vacinação pois, além de prejuízos aos produtores, traz um alerta máximo aos Órgãos de Defesa Sanitária diante de um caso provável de síndrome vesicular.

ABSTRACT: Although Northeast Brazil is considered free of foot and mouth disease (FMD) with vaccination, several economic and health damages are still recorded due to the occurrence of vesicular syndromes that can be evaluated, such as Vesicular Stomatitis (VS). Therefore, this study aimed to confirm the occurrence of this disease and to determine the predominant viral serotype in suspected cases notified to the Official Veterinary Service of Ceará in 2013 performing official diagnostic protocols recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health. After clinical and epidemiological investigation in 46 farms, 32 probable cases of VS were considered with 78 sampled animals, 65 bovines and 13 equines. Serum (54) and epithelium (24) samples were collected. Six (14.6%) of 41 bovines and 8 (61.5%) of 13 equines described seroconversion to Indiana Vesiculovirus (IVV) by viral neutralization. The IVV was detected in 15 (62.5%) of 24 bovines epithelia using the indirect sandwich ELISA. Finally, positive epithelium underwent complement fixation test viral subtyping that identified the occurrence of Indiana III serotype (Alagoas/IVV-3) in 11 (73.3%) of 15 previous positives cattle. These were the first confirmed cases of VS in Ceará with an official diagnosis of IVV-3, confirming the endemic character attributed to the state through previous unofficial serological surveys. The presence of VS is a continuing diagnostic challenge, given the risk of possible incursions of FMD. Vesicular stomatitis is recurrent and is a worrying in this area free of foot and mouth disease with vaccination that bring damage to producers and a maximum alert to the Sanitary Defense Organs in the face of a probable case of vesicular syndrome.

Resumo Diferentes compostos químicos são liberados pelas plantas após o ataque dos herbívoros. Muitos desses compostos são usados por predadores e parasitoides para localizar os herbívoros que estão injuriando as plantas. Esse tipo de defesa induzida indireta foi testada no sistema Caryocar brasiliense e formigas em duas estações: seca (quando C. brasiliense está com folhas maduras) e chuvosa (quando C. brasiliense está com folhas jovens). Nós analisamos 20 plantas por estação do ano. Em cada planta nós selecionamos duas folhas opostas de um mesmo ramo. Nós removemos cerca de 40% da área de uma das folhas, deixando a outra folha intacta. Nós mensuramos simultaneamente o número de formigas que visitaram cada tipo de folha por 15 min e analisamos a diferença entre o número de formigas em cada tipo de folha através de teste t pareado. Nós observamos diferença significativa no número de formigas que patrulham as folhas tratamento (com herbivoria artificial) e controle (sem hervivoria artificial) apenas na estação chuvosa (t = 3,004, df = 19, p = 0,007). Isso sugere que existe defesa induzida nesse sistema somente quando as folhas são jovens. Nosso estudo corrobora a Teoria de Defesa Ótima já que apenas as folhas jovens de C. brasiliense com dano artificial atraíram significativamente mais formigas do que as folhas sem danos. Esta é a primeira vez que mecanismos de defesa induzida são observados no sistema C. brasiliense-formigas.

Abstract Different profiles of secondary compounds are released by plants after herbivore attack. Many of these compounds are used by predators and parasitoids to locate herbivores that are damaging leaves. Such an induced indirect defense was tested with the Caryocar brasiliense-ant system in the dry season, when C. brasiliense has old leaves, and in the rainy season, when C. brasiliense has new leaves. A total of 20 plants were analyzed per season. Two opposite leaves of the same branch were selected for each plant. Approximately 40% of the area of one leaf was removed (treatment leaf) while the other leaf remained intact (control). The number of ants that visited each leaf was counted simultaneously for a period of 15 minutes and the mean difference in ant number was tested by paired t-test. The mean number of ants differed significantly between treatment and control only in the rainy season (t = 3.004, df = 19, p = 0.007). This finding suggests the presence of induced defense in this system only when the leaves are young. The study supports the Optimal Defense Theory since young leaves of C. brasiliense with artificial damage attracted significantly more ants than leaves without damage and represents the first evidence of an induced defense mechanism in the C. brasiliense-ant system.

ABSTRACT The chemical mechanisms involved in indirect plant-mediated interactions between insects and phytopathogenic fungi on the host plant are poorly understood. Fungus-induced changes in the volatile organic compound (VOC) contents of plants need to be elucidated to address this. Here, changes in VOCs in rose (Rosa chinensis Jacq.) leaves infected with rose powdery mildew (Podosphaera pannosa [Wallr.: Fr.[ de Bary) were studied. VOCs were collected from undamaged live leaves of healthy and infected intact rose plants by dynamic headspace adsorption and identified by GC-MS. VOCs were extracted using n-hexane, and 38 chemicals were found to be produced by P. pannosa. A total of 71 VOCs not produced by P. pannosa were produced to different degrees by infected and healthy plants, and 18 of these were produced only by infected plants. Principal component analysis of chromatographic data gave VOC profiles distinguishing between infected and healthy plants. Hexadecanol, octadecanol, tetradecanol, n-butyl hexadecanoate, and n-butyl stearate dominated the VOCs produced by infected plants. These chemicals can be used as markers for detecting mildew-infected rose plants even 4-7 d after infection before symptoms appear. Clear temporal changes in the concentrations of these five chemicals were found. The results improve our understanding of the chemical mechanisms involved in interactions between insects and phytopathogenic fungi.

ABSTRACT Plant indirect induced defenses against herbivores are characterized by the production of plant volatiles that to attract natural enemies. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether the attack of the two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae or the multiple herbivory of T. urticae together with the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda are able to elicit indirect induced defense in conventional and Bt maize plants. The experiment was carried out in the laboratory using Y-tube olfactometer, evaluating the predatory mite Neoseiulus californicus olfactory preference for plant volatiles. The treatments involved: Clean Conventional Plant; Conventional Plant Infested with T. urticae; Clean Bt Plant; Bt Plant Infested with T. urticae; Conventional Plant Infested with T. urticae + fall armyworm; Bt Plant Infested with T. urticae + fall armyworm. For the chemical analyzes the Trace GC Ultra gas chromatograph was used, paired with the Polaris Q mass spectrometer, GC - MS system. Neoseiulus californicus was also unable to distinguish between volatiles from both conventional and Bt infested maize plants. Moreover, there was no discrimination of the predator mite between plants under single and multiple infestations, both in conventional and Bt maize. When comparing conventional and Bt plants, both with multiple infestation, the predator mite N. californicus had no preference among these sources of odors. However, there was observed chemical changes of the volatiles among the groups of plants studied. Thus, it is suggested that the groups of plants under study have chemical modifications, but they are not able to attract N. californicus. In addition, Bt plants response was similar to conventional plants on attracting N. californicus.

ABSTRACT Antimicrobial peptides are small cationic molecules present in almost all living organisms. They show direct or indirect (immunomodulation) activity in a wide range of pathogenic microorganisms as members of the humoral arsenal of innate immunity. In mammals they play a significant role in respiratory airways. The most abundant antimicrobial peptides in the respiratory tract of mammals are lysozymes, lactoferrin, histatins, defensins and cathelicidins. Respiratory and pulmonary infections are combated, primarily, by antimicrobial peptides like LL-37 against Gram-negative bacteria, histatin 5 against Candida albicans and human peptides from neutrophils against adenovirus, influenza and parainfluenza. This paper provides a review of the most important antimicrobial peptides in the respiratory tract and their use in the search for new effective agents against microorganisms that cause respiratory infections based on information published in MedLine, the Web of Science and Scopus in recent years.

RESUMEN Los péptidos antimicrobianos son pequeñas moléculas catiónicas presentes en casi todos los organismos vivos. Muestran actividad directa o indirecta (inmunomodulación) en una amplia gama de microorganismos patógenos como miembros del arsenal humoral de la inmunidad innata. En los mamíferos juegan un papel importante en las vías respiratorias. Los péptidos antimicrobianos más abundantes en el tracto respiratorio son lisozima, lactoferrina, histatinas, defensinas y catelicidinas. Las infecciones respiratorias y pulmonares son combatidas, principalmente, por péptidos antimicrobianos como LL-37 contra bacterias gramnegativas, histatina 5 contra Candida albicans y péptidos humanos de neutrófilos contra adenovirus, influenza y parainfluenza. Este artículo proporciona una revisión sobre los péptidos antimicrobianos más importantes en el tracto respiratorio y su empleo en la búsqueda de nuevos agentes eficaces contra microorganismos causantes de infecciones respiratorias teniendo en cuenta la información publicada al respecto en MedLine, Web of Science y Scopus en los últimos años.

Background and Objectives: Some clinicians use different psychotherapeutic methods in combination in their practice. These combinations reflect the need for more rigorous research on the common pathways which these different therapy orientations may be utilizing, and one way to identify these pathways would be to investigate some core assessment tools or conceptual foundations of these two different approaches. Aim: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the relationship between defense mechanisms and cognitive distortions, and to identify the mediating role of cognitive distortions between defense styles and depression. Methods: A total of 342 female psychiatric outpatients aged 18 and older were recruited. A diagnostic interview and rating of the depression severity were undertaken, and the Cognitive Distortion Scales and the Defense Style Questionnaire were completed by the participants. Hierarchical regression analyses were conducted to test for the direct and indirect effects of the defense styles. Results Cognitive distortions and defense mechanisms were both correlated with the severity of depression, but the correlations were stronger for the former. Conclusions The findings are suggestive of the mediating effect of cognitive distortions between defense mechanisms and the severity of depression.

The systematization of colonial dominion in Perú during the rule of viceroy don Francisco de Toledo (1569-1581) enabled new political mediating instances for Southandean caciques principales y gobernadores (local chiefs), who became valid interlocutors for the articulation of an indirect rule over ethnic groups. Settled "between two legitimaices", some leaders holdstrategicpositions within local political network, participating in the diversified mercantile economy, appealing at colonial justice in defense of their charges, rights and lands, and even accumulating personal wealth. However, it was not the case for many other caciques with less "managing potential" of ethnic economics, who saw their influences and action scopes diminished. In this paper we focus on those minorized leadership figures, who did not fit into the historiographical pattern of "successful cacique", and to rescue them from "documental oblivion". We understand that Pacajes and Omasuyos corregimientos (rural colonial administrative jurisdiction), dependent of La Paz city (present Bolivia), constitute optimal scenes for political reconfiguration processes, since their caciques showed wide variability of trajectories, which in this paper we recover from a comparative perspective.

La sistematización del dominio colonial implantada en el Perú durante el gobierno del virrey don Francisco de Toledo (1569-1581) habilitó nuevas instancias de mediación política para los caciques principales y gobernadores de los repartimientos surandinos, devenidos interlocutores válidos en la articulación de una modalidad indirecta de gobierno sobre los colectivos étnicos. Ubicados "entre dos legitimidades", algunos líderes ocuparon posiciones estratégicas del entramado político local, participando de la economía mercantil en plena diversificación, apelando a la justicia colonial en defensa de cargos, derechos y tierras, e incluso acumulando riquezas a título personal. Pero tal no fue el caso de muchos otros caciques que, con menor "potencial gestor" de las economías étnicas, vieron disminuidas sus influencias y sus márgenes de acción. En este artículo nos proponemos rescatar del "olvido documental" a esas figuras de liderazgo minorizado, que no respondieron al patrón historiográfico del "cacique exitoso". Los corregimientos de Pacajes y Omasuyos, dependientes de la ciudad de La Paz (actual Bolivia) constituyen, a nuestro entender, escenarios óptimos para el análisis de los procesos de reconfiguración política, toda vez que sus caciques presentaron una amplia variabilidad de trayectorias que en este artículo recuperamos a partir de una perspectiva comparada.

ResumenLas plantas tienen recursos limitados para invertir en reproducción, crecimiento vegetativo y defensa contra herbívoros. El cambio en la distribución de recursos promueve variaciones en rasgos vegetales, que pueden afectar los niveles tróficos superiores. Durante dos años consecutivos de alta y baja inversión reproductiva se evaluó el cambio de recursos entre crecimiento vegetativo y defensa, y su efecto indirecto sobre la herbivoría en Copaifera langsdorffii. Nos preguntamos: i) ¿La inversión de recursos para la reproducción causa reducción del crecimiento vegetativo, como predice la hipótesis de equilibrio carbono/nutrientes, haciendo posible gastar más recursos en defensa? ii) ¿La variación en distribución de recursos para crecimiento y defensa entre años de alta y baja fructificación modifica indirectamente la herbivoría? Se monitorearon treinta y cinco árboles durante 2008 (gran fructificación) y 2009 (sin fructificación) en un área de vegetación de cerrado (Brasil), para evaluar la inversión diferencial en rasgos vegetativos (biomasa, crecimiento y No. de ramificaciones), defensa (concentración de taninos e hipersensibilidad vegetal) y herbivoría. De acuerdo a nuestra primera pregunta, se observó que en el año de fructificación la biomasa leñosa afectó negativamente la concentración de taninos, indicando que la producción de frutos redujo los recursos que podían invertirse en crecimiento y defensa. Además, la resistencia de las plantas y el ataque de agallas fueron influidos positivamente por la concentración de taninos y la biomasa foliar, lo que sugiere que la resistencia de los árboles a la herbivoría es un buen indicador de defensa vegetal y una estrategia efectiva de defensa de C. langsdorffii, además hay evidencia de respuesta trófica indirecta, como se postula en la segunda pregunta. En resumen, el patrón de fructificación supra-anual provoca varios efectos en el desarrollo de las plantas, mostrando la importancia de evaluar diversos rasgos vegetales al caracterizar la inversión de recursos de una especie. Como se esperaba, el cambio en la distribución de recursos modifica la producción de compuestos de defensa y los patrones de herbivoría. El entendimiento de este elemento importante de las interacciones insecto-planta será fundamental para descifrar la historia natural coevolutiva y las interacciones entre reproducción vegetal y ataque herbívoro. Además de eso, solo a través de estudios a largo plazo vamos a ser capaces de construir modelos y desarrollar pronósticos más precisos acerca de los factores que desencadenan el efecto de abajo hacia arriba en el rendimiento de la herbivoría, así el efecto de arriba hacia abajo de los herbívoros sobre la evolución de las plantas.

AbstractPlants have limited resources to invest in reproduction, vegetative growth and defense against herbivorous. Trade-off in resources allocation promotes changes in plant traits that may affect higher trophic levels. In this study, we evaluated the trade-off effect between years of high and low fruiting on the investment of resources for growth and defense, and their indirect effects on herbivory in Copaifera langsdorffii. Our questions were: (i) does the resource investment on reproduction causes a depletion in vegetative growth as predicted by the Carbon/Nutrient Balance hypothesis (CNBH), resulting in more availability of resources to be allocated for defense?, (ii) does the variation in resource allocation for growth and defense between years of high and low fruiting leads to indirect changes in herbivory? Thirty-five trees located in a Cerrado area were monitored during 2008 (year of high fruiting) and 2009 (year of no fruiting) to evaluate the differential investment in vegetative traits (biomass, growth and number of ramifications), plant defense (tannin concentration and plant hypersensitivity) and herbivory (galling attack and folivory). According to our first question, we observed that in the fruiting year, woody biomass negatively affected tannin concentration, indicating that fruit production restricted the resources that could be invested both in growth as in defense. In the same way, we observed an inter-annual variation in herbivorous attack, and found that plants with higher leaf biomass and tannin concentration, experienced higher galling attack and hypersensitive reaction, regardless years. These findings suggested that plants’ resistance to herbivory is a good proxy of plant defense and an effective defense strategy for C. langsdorffii, besides the evidence of indirect responses of the third trophic level, as postulated by the second question. In summary, the supra-annual fruiting pattern promoted several changes on plant development, demonstrating the importance of evaluating different plant traits when characterizing the vegetative investment. As expected by theory, the trade-off in resource allocation favored changes in defense compounds production and patterns of herbivory. The understanding of this important element of insect-plant interactions will be fundamental to decipher coevolutionary life histories and interactions between plant species reproduction and herbivory. Besides that, only through long-term studies we will be able to build models and develop more accurate forecasts about the factors that trigger the bottom-up effect on herbivory performance, as well the top-down effect of herbivores on plant trait evolution. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (2): 507-520. Epub 2016 June 01.

OBJETIVO: Descrever a atividade antimicrobiana da defensina-beta 2 na glândula mamária e secretada no leite materno humano. MÉTODOS: A produção de peptídeos foi realizada por clonagem de DNA. Os níveis de defensina-beta 2 foram quantificados em 61 amostras de colostro e 39 de leite maduro de doadoras saudáveis pelo teste ELISA indireto. Por um ensaio de halo de inibição, avaliamos a atividade contra sete isolados clínicos diarreicos de crianças entre 0 e 2 anos. A atividade da defensina 2 contra três patógenos oportunistas que podem causar infecções nosocomiais foi determinada pelo teste de microdiluição. RESULTADOS: Os níveis de peptídeos estavam significativamente maiores nas amostras de colostro (n = 61) que de leite maduro (n = 39), como segue: 8,52 (2,6-16,3 µg/mL) mediana e faixa em comparação a 0,97 (0,22-3,78), p < 0,0001; teste de Mann-Whitney. O peptídeo recombinante foi obtido da alta atividade antimicrobiana demonstrada contra uma ampla gama de bactérias patogênicas. Sua atividade antibacteriana foi demonstrada em um disco contendo entre 1-4 µg, que produziu zonas de inibição entre 18 e 30 mm contra três isolados de Salmonella spp. e quatro de E. coli. A defensina-beta 2 demonstrou concentrações inibitórias mínimas (CIMs) de 0,25 µg/mL e 0,5 µg/mL para S. marcescen and P. aeruginosa, ao passo que uma CIM maior (4 µg/mL) foi obtida contra um isolado de cepa multirresistente de A. baumannii. CONCLUSÕES: Até onde sabemos, este estudo é o primeiro a relatar níveis de defensina em mulheres da América Latina. A produção e a atividade da defensina 2 no leite materno comprovam sua importância como uma molécula de defesa para a saúde intestinal em pacientes pediátricos.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the antimicrobial activity of ß-defensin-2 produced in the mammary gland and secreted in human breast milk. METHODS: The peptide production was performed by DNA cloning. ß-defensin-2 levels were quantified in 61 colostrum samples and 39 mature milk samples from healthy donors, by an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Using halo inhibition assay, this study assessed activity against seven clinical isolates from diarrheal feces of children between 0 and 2 years of age. The activity of ß-defensin-2 against three opportunistic pathogens that can cause nosocomial infections was determined by microdilution test. RESULTS: The peptide levels were higher in colostrum (n = 61) than in mature milk samples (n = 39), as follows: median and range, 8.52 (2.6-16.3) µg/ml versus 0.97 (0.22-3.78), p < 0.0001; Mann-Whitney test. The recombinant peptide obtained showed high antimicrobial activity against a broad range of pathogenic bacteria. Its antibacterial activity was demonstrated in a disk containing between 1-4 µg, which produced inhibition zones ranging from 18 to 30 mm against three isolates of Salmonella spp. and four of E. coli. ß-defensin-2 showed minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.25 µg/mL and 0.5 µg/mL for S. marcescen and P. aeruginosa, respectively, while a higher MIC (4 µg/mL) was obtained against an isolated of multidrug-resistant strain of A. baumannii. CONCLUSIONS: To the authors' knowledge, this study is the first to report ß-defensin-2 levels in Latin American women. The production and the activity of ß-defensin-2 in breast milk prove its importance as a defense molecule for intestinal health in pediatric patients.

Binge alcohol drinking during adolescence has been associated with neurotoxicity and increased risk for the development of alcohol use disorders. There is evidence that acute and chronic ethanol administration alters c-fos expression, an indirect index of cellular activity, in different brain regions in adult rats. We evaluate here if a binge-like pattern of ethanol exposure during adolescence has a relevant impact on basal and/or ethanol-stimulated regional c-fos activity during adulthood. For that aim, Sprague-Dawley rats PND 25 were saline pre-treated, (SP group) or binge-ethanol pre-treated (BEP group) for twoconsecutive days, at 48-h intervals, over a 14-day period (PND 25 to PND 38). At adult stage (PND 63) and following 25 ethanol-free days, we evaluated c-fos immunoreactivity in response to saline or acute ethanol (1.5 or 3.0 g/kg) in the hypothalamus and amygdala. We found that acute ethanol administration dose-dependently increased c-fos activity in the the Paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN). Interestingly, binge-ethanol exposure during adolescence significantly reduced basal c-fos activity during adulthood in the Central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and the Arcuate nucleus of hypothalamus (Arc). We conclude that binge-like ethanol administration during adolescence causes long-term disturbances in basal neural activity in brain areas critically involved with ethanol consumption.

El consumo en atracón durante la adolescencia está asociado con neurotoxicidad y con el riesgo de desarrollar un trastorno en el uso de alcohol. Diversos estudios muestran que la administración aguda y crónica de alcohol en ratas adultas altera la expresión de c-fos, un marcador indirecto de actividad celular, en diferentes áreas cerebrales. Nosotros evaluamos si el patrón de consumo de alcohol en atracón durante la adolescencia tiene un impacto en la actividad basal de c-fos en esas regiones activadas por el alcohol. Utilizamos ratas Sprague-Dawley en su día post-natal 25 (PND25) tratadas con suero salino (grupo SP) o con etanol tipo atracón (grupo BEP) durante dos días consecutivos, en intervalos de 48 h, durante 14 días (PND25- PND38). En la edad adulta (PND63) y después de 25 días sin etanol, evaluamos la inmunorreactividad para c-fos en respuesta a una administración aguda de suero salino o etanol (1,5 ó 3,0 g/kg) en diferentes regiones cerebrales. La administración de alcohol incrementó de manera dosis-dependiente la actividad de c-fos en el núcleo paraventricular del hipotálamo. Además la exposición a etanol tipo atracón durante la adolescencia disminuyó la actividad basal de c-fos en la adultez en el núcleo central de la amígdala y en el núcleo arqueado del hipotálamo. Concluimos que el consumo de alcohol en atracón durante la adolescencia causa problemas a largo plazo en la actividad basal de regiones cerebrales implicadas en el consumo de alcohol.

Introduction: at present, scientists are resorting more frequently to nature in order to develop drugs against various illnesses such as cancer. The origin of natural products is diverse and their structure is very complex with the capacity of inhibiting through indirect effect the development of tumors by stimulating the defense mechanisms of the body. Objective: to evaluate the indirect antitumor action of plant extracts in Erlich ascitic tumor cells. Methods: a group of 50 NMRI-line mice was interperitoneally pretreated with plant extracts during 5 days. After 48 hours, Erlich ascitic tumor cells were transplanted into the mice. Another control group of mice was pretreated with 0.9 % physiological saline solution; at 48 hours they were also implanted the same tumor cells. The antitumor activity was determined by comparing the control group with the group of mice treated with extracts in terms of tumor implant rejection. The product was considered to be active if it caused 60 % tumor growth inhibition or more. Results: of the evaluated extracts, 5 obtained more than 60 percent of survival in animals at one of the tested doses, with no signs of tumor after observation during 30 days. It proved that these extracts were active. Conclusions: it was proved that these 5 extracts could be potential products in stimulating immune response, so they should be further studied in the future.

Introducción: hoy día los científicos recurren con mayor frecuencia a la naturaleza para desarrollar fármacos contra enfermedades como el cáncer. Los productos naturales son diversos en cuanto a su origen y estructuralmente complejos; pueden ser capaces a partir de un efecto indirecto de inhibir el desarrollo del tumor por medio de la estimulación de los mecanismos de defensa del organismo. Objetivo: evaluar la actividad antitumoral indirecta de extractos de plantas en el tumor ascítico de Erlich. Métodos: se seleccionaron 50 ratones de la línea NMRI, a los cuales se les hizo un pretratamiento por vía intraperitoneal con los extractos obtenidos de plantas durante 5 d; a las 48 h después del tratamiento se trasplantaron las células del tumor ascítico de Erlich. A otro grupo de animales utilizados como control se les realizó el pretratamiento con solución salina fisiológica 0,9 % y a las 48 h se efectuó el trasplante con las mismas células tumorales. La actividad antitumoral se determinó comparando el grupo control con el tratado mediante los extractos, por rechazo al implante del tumor. Se consideró que el producto era activo si provocaba un valor igual o mayor que 60 % de inhibición del crecimiento tumoral de los animales tratados. Resultados: de los extractos evaluados, 5 mostraron en una de las dosis ensayadas un valor mayor que 60 % de animales vivos, sin signos de presencia del tumor a los 30 d de observación. Esto demuestra que esos extractos son activos. Conclusiones: los 5 extractos podrían ser probables productos estimuladores de la respuesta inmune, lo que los hace candidatos a continuar las investigaciones.