Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es determinar si la inversión de nearshoring en México se explica por la pérdida de participación de China en el mercado estadounidense, resultado de la guerra comercial, o está determinado por otros factores que se han ido gestando desde años atrás, como es el aumento del diferencial de salarios manufactureros entre México y China o por la crisis mundial debido a la pandemia. La estimación de un modelo VEC, con datos trimestrales de 2006 a 2022, indican que la pérdida de participación de China en EUA causa en el sentido Granger aumentos del nearshoring en México y que el aumento del diferencial de los salarios manufactureros entre México y China ha favorecido el nearshoring, pues desde 2012 el costo laboral chino supera al mexicano. La recesión mundial causada por la pandemia y la aplicación de sanciones arancelarias a China desde 2018 no causan el nearshoring.

Abstract The objective of this article is to determine if the nearshoring investment in Mexico is explained by China's loss of participation in the US market, a result of a trade war, or is determined by other factors that have been developing for years, such as the increase in the manufacturing wage differential between Mexico and China or the global crisis due to the pandemic. The estimation of a VEC model, with quarterly data from 2006 to 2022, indicates that the loss of China's participation in the US Granger causes increases in nearshoring in Mexico and that the increase in wage differential in manufacturing between Mexico and China has favored nearshoring investment, since the Chinese labor cost has exceeded the Mexican one since 2012. The global recession caused by the pandemic and the application of tariff sanctions to China since 2018 do not cause nearshoring.

Resumen En los últimos años, la región latinoamericana ha sufrido profundos impactos como consecuencia de transformaciones sistémicas asociadas al debilitamiento de la economía, la pandemia del covid-19, la guerra comercial entre China y Estados Unidos e incluso el surgimiento de nuevos conflictos. Este escenario supone importantes desafíos, especialmente para países pequeños de la región como Panamá y Ecuador, los cuales han implementado estrategias de articulación en materia comercial con la República Popular China (RPC) a través de los tratados de libre comercio (TLC). No obstante, dichas estrategias se vislumbran también como mecanismos de contención frente al escenario de crisis e incertidumbre que caracteriza actualmente al sistema internacional. El artículo hace un análisis en torno al proceso de negociación de TLC por parte de Panamá y Ecuador con China, instrumentos que se enmarcan en la estrategia Commercial Diplomacy como formato exclusivo de negociación y de relacionamiento con diversos socios estratégicos. Se argumenta que, dada la condición de vulnerabilidad de los países pequeños en torno a las recientes transformaciones globales, estos han decidido implementar estrategias adaptativas y de contención con China en la agenda comercial.

Abstract In recent years, the Latin American region has suffered profound impacts because of systemic transformations such as the weak global economy, the Covid-19 pandemic, the trade war between China and the United States and even the emergence of new conflicts. This scenario implies challenges, especially for small countries in the region, such as Panama and Ecuador, which have implemented trade coordination strategies with the People’s Republic of China through free trade agreements. However, these strategies are also seen as containment mechanisms in the face of the scenario of crisis and uncertainty that characterizes the international system. The article analytically reflects on the FTA negotiation process by Panama and Ecuador with China, instruments that are part of the Commercial Diplomacy strategy as an exclusive format of negotiation and relationship with various strategic partners. The article argues that, given the vulnerability of small countries regarding recent global transformations, they have decided to implement adaptive and containment strategies with China on the commercial agenda.

ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the antiseptic effect of 0.25% chlorhexidine nanoemulsion (NM-Cl) on cat skin and compare its effect with that of 2.0% chlorhexidine digluconate (CS-Cl). NM-Cl was synthesized using the spontaneous emulsification method, and physical and chemical properties were analyzed. The antiseptic effects of NM-Cl and CS-Cl were randomly tested on the thoracic limbs of 10 healthy male cats. After a wide trichotomy of the thoracic limbs, NM-Cl was randomly applied to the trichotomy area of the right (n = 5) or left (n = 5) thoracic limbs. Then, a catheter was inserted aseptically in the cephalic vein. Subsequently, the same procedure was performed using CS-Cl on the contralateral limb. Cutaneous microbiota swab samples were obtained before antisepsis (Tpre); immediately after antisepsis (Tpost); and 4, 8, and 24 h after antisepsis. The collected samples were immediately inoculated on blood agar plates and incubated at 35 ºC ± 2 ºC in aerobiosis. Colony-forming units (CFUs) were manually counted after 24 h of inoculation. The Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests were performed between groups and within the same group at different sample times, respectively. The NM-Cl and CS-Cl groups showed a reduction in CFUs between Tpre and Tpost in all animals (P < 0.001). Both formulations presented an antiseptic effect 24 h of antisepsis (P < 0.05), and no difference was observed between formulations at different times (P < 0.05). With a lower concentration of chlorhexidine than CS-Cl, NM-Cl presents effective antiseptic action and prolonged residual effect in antisepsis for cat venipuncture. ABSTRACT 025 0 25 0.25 NMCl NM Cl (NM-Cl 20 2.0 CSCl. CSCl CS . (CS-Cl) method analyzed 1 cats n 5 Then vein Subsequently limb (Tpre) (Tpost) 4 8 3 aerobiosis Colonyforming Colony forming (CFUs inoculation KruskalWallis Kruskal Wallis MannWhitney Mann Whitney respectively P 0.001. 0001 0.001 001 0.001) 0.05, 005 0.05 , 05 0.05) 0.05. CSCl, Cl, venipuncture 02 0.2 2. (CS-Cl (Tpre (Tpost 000 0.00 00 0.0 0.

RESUMO: O objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito antisséptico da nanoemulsão de clorexidina a 0,25% (NM-Cl) na pele de gatos e compará-lo com a solução comercial de clorexidina a 2,0% (CS-Cl). A NM-Cl foi desenvolvida através do método de emulsificação espontânea, com posterior análise e caracterização das propriedades físicas e químicas. O efeito antisséptico de NM-Cl e CS-Cl foi testado de forma randomizada nos membros torácicos de dez gatos machos saudáveis. Após ampla tricotomia dos membros torácicos, a antissepsia foi realizada com NM-Cl aplicada nos membros torácicos direito (n = 5) ou esquerdo (n = 5), e um cateter foi inserido assepticamente na veia cefálica. Posteriormente, o mesmo procedimento foi realizado com a CS-Cl no membro contralateral. Amostras da microbiota cutânea foram obtidas antes da antissepsia (Tpre), imediatamente após a antissepsia (Tpos) e quatro, oito e 24 horas após a antissepsia. As amostras coletadas foram imediatamente inoculadas em placas de ágar sangue e incubadas a 35 ºC ± 2 ºC em aerobiose. A contagem manual da unidade formadora de colônia (UFC) foi realizada 24 horas após a inoculação. Os testes de Kruskal-Wallis e Mann-Whitney foram usados entre os grupos e dentro do mesmo grupo em diferentes tempos amostrais. Os grupos NM-Cl e CS-Cl apresentaram redução nas UFC entre Tpre e Tpos em todos os animais (P < 0,001). Ambas as formulações apresentaram efeito antisséptico 24 horas após a antissepsia (P < 0,05), não havendo diferença entre as formulações nos diferentes tempos (P < 0,05). O NM-Cl (com menor concentração de clorexidina que o CS-Cl) apresenta ação antisséptica eficaz e efeito residual prolongado na antissepsia para a punção venosa em gatos. RESUMO 025 0 25 0,25 NMCl NM Cl (NM-Cl comparálo compará lo 20 2,0 CSCl. CSCl CS . (CS-Cl) espontânea químicas saudáveis n 5 5, , cefálica Posteriormente contralateral Tpre, (Tpre) (Tpos quatro 3 aerobiose (UFC inoculação KruskalWallis Kruskal Wallis MannWhitney Mann Whitney amostrais P 0,001. 0001 0,001 001 0,001) 0,05, 005 0,05 05 0,05) 0,05. 02 0,2 2, (CS-Cl (Tpre 000 0,00 00 0,0 0,

Abstract Trade wars involve more than strictly economic issues, it also pemeates other spheres, such as politics, security, and development. Despite the advances in the specialized debate due to the recent Sino-American conflict, little is said about the particularities of a trade war and how it is grounded. Based in two case studies, US vs Japan and US vs China, the present article presents some elements that can fill this gap. These two cases were chosen for their relevance and magnitude, given the respective historical contexts in which they took place. Thus, it was possible to observe that the fair trade logic is the central source of legitimation of the American trade wars.

Resumo As guerras comerciais envolvem mais do que questões estritamente de cunho econômico, permeando também outras esferas, como política, segurança e desenvolvimento. Apesar do debate especializado ter se expandido com o recente entrave sino-americano, pouco se fala sobre as particularidades de uma guerra comercial e como elas são legitimadas. Através de dois estudos de caso, Estados Unidos vs Japão e Estados Unidos vs China, este artigo pretende suprir tal lacuna. Os dois casos destacam-se pela sua relevância e magnitude, dado os respectivos contextos históricos em que aconteceram. Foi possível observar que a lógica do fair trade é a principal fonte de legitimação das guerras comerciais norte-americanas.

RESUMEN El objetivo de este artículo es revisar la situación socioeconómica del distrito de Surmali que se adjuntó a la gobernación de Irevan antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial. En el trabajo se examina el estado de varios sectores de la vida socioeconómica del distrito de Surmali intentando determinar los principales rasgos característicos de los procesos etnodemográficos, administrativos y económicos de la región. Aunque entre las fuentes bibliográficas el lugar principal lo ocupan las llamadas "Revisiones" anuales en la gobernación publicadas por Edelson, fueron rastreados otros documentos de gran interés. La información de las diversas fuentes demuestra de manera convincente que el distrito de Surmali era una de las regiones agrícolas importantes ocupando en algunas ramas un lugar destacado en la gobernación de Irevan. Al mismo tiempo, la extracción de sal en los campos de Gulp desempeñó un papel significativo en la vida económica, no solo de este distrito y la gobernación antes mencionada, siendo también fue un factor importante en el suministro de alimentos de varias regiones y países cercanos. Al igual que en otras región del oeste de Azerbaiyán, en el distrito se sintió el fortalecimiento de las relaciones entre los productos básicos y el mercado, muchos sectores tradicionales de la vida económica se vieron obligados a adaptarse a los requerimientos de una economía de mercado, hubo un claro predominio de la agricultura comercial, hubo cambios bruscos en la estructura etnodemográfica de la población del condado, un aumento en la número y proporción de inmigrantes, y viceversa, una disminución en la proporción de la etnia autóctona.

ABSTRACT The aim of this article is to review the socio-economic situation of the Surmali district which was attached to the Irevan Governorate before the First World War. The paper examines the state of various sectors of the socioeconomic life of the Surmali district trying to determine the main characteristic features of the ethnodemographic, administrative and economic processes of the region. Although among the bibliographical sources the main place is occupied by the so-called annual "Reviews" in the government published by Edelson, other documents of great interest were searched. The information from the various sources convincingly demonstrates that the Surmali district was one of the important agricultural regions occupying in some branches a prominent position in the Irevan Governorate. At the same time, salt mining in the Gulp fields played a significant role in the economic life of not only this district and the aforementioned governorate but was also an important factor in the food supply of several nearby regions and countries. As in other regions of West Azerbaijan, the strengthening of relations between commodities and the market was felt in the district, many traditional sectors of economic life were forced to adapt to the requirements of a market economy, there was a clear predominance of commercial agriculture, there were sharp changes in the ethnodemographic structure of the county population, an increase in the number and proportion of immigrants, and vice versa, a decrease in the proportion of autochthonous ethnicity.

Abstract: This research shows how the changes and continuities in the ideological and technological dispute for the Third World in the Cold War can help us analyze the commercial and diplomatic conflict that the United States pushed for during the Donald Trump administration (2017-2021) against the People’s Republic of China, as a possible preface to a new Cold War. The methodology we have employed is comparative and links the historiography surrounding this conflict with the discipline of Grand Strategy. The originality of this research lies in taking continuity lines from the conflict between the Soviet Union and the United States as the starting point for the analysis of the American relationship with China at the beginning of the 2020s, focusing on the economic and technological dispute as part of the strategy of both countries.

Resumen: El objetivo de esta investigación es mostrar cómo los cambios y permanencias en la disputa ideológica, tecnológica y por el tercer mundo en la Guerra Fría, pueden ayudar a pensar el conflicto comercial y diplomático que impulsaron los Estados Unidos durante la administración de Donald Trump (2017-2021) contra la República Popular China, como un posible prefacio de una nueva Guerra Fría. La metodología que hemos empleado es comparativa y vincula la historiografía en torno a este conflicto con la disciplina de la gran estrategia. La originalidad de este estudio se encuentra en tomar líneas de continuidad presentes desde el enfrentamiento entre la Unión Soviética y los Estados Unidos, como punto de partida para comprender las relaciones de los norteamericanos al inicio de la década de 2020 con China, enfocándonos en la disputa económica y tecnológica como parte de la estrategia de ambos países.

Abstract In the late 1920s, the anarchist movement in La Paz played a decisive role in opening and consolidating channels of communication with the indigenous movement in the Bolivian Andes. However, anarchists were not the sole political actors involved in this process. Since the beginning of the 20th century, other left-wing currents - broadly defined - also intervened. This article aims to delineate the dialogues established between anarchism and the indigenous movement, both at the ideological level and amid “ethno-classist” struggles. It engages in a debate with and complicates both nationalist and libertarian historiography. Based on the analysis of a corpus composed of commercial and anarchist press, leaflets, correspondence, interviews, and administrative documentation, we argue that the city-countryside exchanges are part of a long and rich history developed in different localities of Bolivia, from that early moment until the hiatus introduced by the outbreak of the Chaco War in 1932. Furthermore, we suggest that this essentially connected history projects itself from the years that preceded the 1952 Revolution, referred to as the “pre-52”, into the following period, known as the “post-52”. 1920s s Andes However process th century leftwing left wing intervened ethnoclassist ethno classist “ethno-classist struggles historiography press leaflets correspondence interviews documentation citycountryside city countryside Bolivia 1932 Furthermore 195 Revolution pre52, pre52 pre 52 , “pre-52” period post52. post52 post . “post-52” 193 19 pre5 5 “pre-52 post5 “post-52 1 “pre-5 “post-5 “pre- “post- “pre “post

Resumen A fines de la década de 1920, el movimiento anarquista de La Paz cumplió un papel determinante en la apertura y consolidación de los canales de comunicación con el movimiento indígena en los Andes bolivianos. Con todo, éste no fue el único actor político involucrado en un proceso del que, a comienzos de siglo XX, intervinieron otras izquierdas definidas de forma amplia. Así, el objetivo de este artículo es caracterizar los diálogos que se establecieron entre anarquismo y movimiento indígena en el plano ideológico y de las luchas “etnoclasistas”, a partir de un abordaje que discute con y complejiza la historiografía nacionalista y libertaria. En base al análisis de un corpus compuesto de prensa comercial y anarquista, folletería, correspondencia, entrevistas y documentación administrativa, sostenemos que los intercambios ciudad-campo forman parte de una larga y rica historia desarrollada en distintas localidades de Bolivia, desde ese temprano momento hasta el paréntesis introducido por la guerra del Chaco en 1932. Asimismo, sugerimos que esta historia en esencia conectada se proyecta de la etapa anterior a la Revolución de 1952, el “pre-52”, a la etapa posterior a ella, el “pos-52”. 1920 bolivianos todo XX amplia Así etnoclasistas, etnoclasistas , “etnoclasistas” libertaria folletería correspondencia administrativa ciudadcampo ciudad campo Bolivia 1932 Asimismo 1952 pre52, pre52 pre 52 “pre-52” ella pos52. pos52 pos . “pos-52” 192 “etnoclasistas 193 195 pre5 5 “pre-52 pos5 “pos-52 19 “pre-5 “pos-5 1 “pre- “pos- “pre “pos

ABSTRACT Low-temperature storage is one of the most effective techniques to maintain the quality and durability of cut flowers. Both quality maintenance and durability are dependent on plant metabolism factors such as antioxidant system. The objective was to evaluate the effect of low-temperature on precooling and storage after harvest, on the metabolism of calla lily [Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) K. Spreng] concerning the antioxidant system, levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and malondialdehyde (MDA). Therefore, different storage temperatures (4 ºC and 21 ºC) were tested as well as the effect of precooling in different periods (0 to 24 hours). It was observed that the activity of catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) was increased at 4 °C, as well as inflorescence durability in the commercial standard (around 12 days). At 21 °C, the content of H2O2 and MDA was higher and the visual quality reduction in the inflorescence was accelerated. Low-temperature leads to a higher activity of the enzymes of the antioxidant system (CAT and SOD) and increases postharvest longevity for calla lily. Precooling did not influence the visual quality and longevity of calla lily. Long-term exposure periods at low temperatures, with 12 and 24 hours of precooling caused stress, evidenced higher MDA levels and higher CAT activity. SOD activity was related to low temperature and shorter precooling periods resulted in better antioxidant system activity and lower MDA levels. Lowtemperature Low flowers lowtemperature harvest Zantedeschia L. L (L. K Spreng H2O2, HO , H O (H2O2) MDA. . (MDA) Therefore ( 2 0 hours. hours) (SOD C °C around 1 days. days days) H2O accelerated Longterm Long term stress (L (H2O2 (MDA (H2O

RESUMO O armazenamento em baixa temperatura é uma das técnicas mais eficazes para manter a qualidade e a durabilidade das flores cortadas. Tanto a manutenção da qualidade quanto a durabilidade são dependentes de fatores do metabolismo da planta como o sistema antioxidante. O objetivo foi avaliar o efeito da baixa temperatura no pré-resfriamento e armazenamento pós-colheita, no metabolismo do copo-de-leite [Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) K. Spreng] quanto ao sistema antioxidante, níveis de peróxido de hidrogênio (H2O2) e malondialdeído (MDA). Portanto, diferentes temperaturas de armazenamento (4 ºC e 21 ºC) foram testadas assim como o efeito do pré-resfriamento em diferentes períodos (0 a 24 horas). Foi observado que a atividade da catalase (CAT) e da superóxido dismutase (SOD) aumentou no armazenamento à 4 °C, assim como a durabilidade da inflorescência no padrão comercial (aproximadamente 12 dias). À 21 °C, o teor de H2O2 e MDA foi maior e a redução da qualidade visual na inflorescência foi acelerada. A baixa temperatura leva a uma maior atividade das enzimas do sistema antioxidante (CAT e SOD) e aumenta a longevidade pós-colheita do copo-de-leite. O pré-resfriamento não influenciou na qualidade visual e longevidade do copo-de-leite. Períodos de exposição de longa duração a baixas temperaturas, com 12 e 24 horas de pré-resfriamento causaram estresse, evidenciados por maiores níveis de MDA e maior atividade de CAT. A atividade da SOD foi relacionada à baixa temperatura e períodos mais curtos de pré-resfriamento resultaram em melhor atividade do sistema antioxidante e menores níveis de MDA. cortadas préresfriamento pré resfriamento póscolheita, póscolheita pós colheita, colheita copodeleite copo leite Zantedeschia L. L (L. K Spreng HO H (H2O2 . (MDA) Portanto ( 2 0 horas. horas) CAT (SOD C °C aproximadamente 1 dias. dias dias) H2O acelerada copodeleite. leite. estresse (L (H2O (MDA

Abstract In the period 1897-1930, crops in the state of São Paulo accounted for approximately two thirds of the coffee bags exported by Brazil, beans that were traded in the port of Santos. But which were the companies responsible for exporting Brazilian coffee in the port of São Paulo? The historiography has agreed to point out the dominance of foreign companies over the commercialization of coffee in the aforementioned period. Based on the archives of Associação Comercial de Santos and editions of Wileman's Brazilian Review, the article demonstrates that English and German houses led exports in Santos until 1913 but, with the beginning of the World War I in 1914 and in the 1920s, there were national/Brazilian houses that led exports and began to compete with foreign firms, and these firms became US firms. 18971930, 18971930 1897 1930, 1930 1897-1930 Brazil Wilemans Wileman s Review 191 but 1920s nationalBrazilian national 1897193 189 193 1897-193 19 189719 18 1897-19 1 18971 1897-1 1897-

Resumo No período 1897-1930, as lavouras do estado de São Paulo responderam por aproximadamente dois terços das sacas de café exportadas pelo Brasil, grãos que eram negociadas no porto de Santos. Mas, quais eram as firmas responsáveis por exportar o café brasileiro no porto paulista? A historiografia convencionou apontar o domínio de empresas estrangeiras sobre a comercialização do café no período citado. Embasado nos arquivos da Associação Comercial de Santos e nas edições do Wileman’s Brazilian Review, o artigo demonstra que as casas inglesas e alemãs lideraram as exportações em Santos até 1913, mas, com o início da I Guerra Mundial em 1914 e na década de 1920, houve casas nacionais/brasileiras que lideraram a exportação e passaram rivalizar com firmas estrangeiras, sendo que estas firmas passaram a ser as estadunidenses. 18971930, 18971930 1897 1930, 1930 1897-1930 Brasil Mas paulista citado Wilemans Wileman s Review 1913 mas 191 1920 nacionaisbrasileiras nacionais brasileiras estadunidenses 1897193 189 193 1897-193 19 192 189719 18 1897-19 1 18971 1897-1 1897-

Resumo O estudo analisa a relação de causalidade entre o indicador bursátil brasileiro em relação a outros indicadores de bolsa de valores. Especificamente, o tempo de estudo incorpora a crise mundial causada pela covid-19 e a guerra pelo preço do petróleo. Utilizaram-se as séries diferenciadas, considerando a existência de raiz unitária; posteriormente, realizou-se a estimação do modelo VAR e a causalidade de Granger. Nos resultados, verifica-se que a causalidade entre o Ibovespa com o S&P500 e o Nikkei é bidirecional. Esses resultados são consistentes ao relacionar o grau de intercâmbio comercial e de origem do investimento estrangeiro no Brasil. JEL: F21, F37, G15, G17.

Resumen En este artículo se analiza la relación causal entre el indicador de bolsa de valores de Brasil con relación a otros indicadores. El tiempo de estudio incorpora la crisis mundial causada por la COVID-19 y la guerra por el precio del petróleo. Se utilizaron series diferenciadas considerando la existencia de una raíz unitaria; luego se estimó la causalidad de Granger a partir de un VAR. Se verifica que la causalidad entre el Ibovespa con el S&P500 y el Nikkei es bidireccional. Estos resultados son consistentes al relacionar el grado de intercambio comercial y el origen de la inversión extranjera en Brasil. JEL: F21, F37, G15, G17.

Abstract This paper analyzes the causal relationship between the Brazilian stock market indicator and other stock exchange indicators. Specifically, the study time incorporates the world crisis caused by the covid-19 and the war over the price of oil. Were used the differentiated series considering the existence of a unit root, the VAR and Granger Causality models were subsequently estimated. The results show that the causality between the Ibovespa with the S&P500 and Nikkei is bidirectional. These results are consistent when relating the degree of commercial exchange and the origin of foreign investment in Brazil. JEL: F21, F37, G15, G17.

Resumen La economía global ha testificado la consolidación de China en el mercado mundial. Erigido como el segundo socio comercial de México, China ha enfrentado una guerra comercial con Estados Unidos, en medio de una clara estrategia para reafirmar su liderazgo regional y consolidar su presencia en una economía mundial afectada por la covid-19. Con el enfoque de las relaciones económicas internacionales, con énfasis en lo político y comercial, en este artículo se analizan las relaciones recientes entre México, China y Estados Unidos con el objetivo de establecer una perspectiva de la relación trilateral hacia la nueva normalidad. A través de un análisis basado en metodología exploratoria y descriptiva, con apoyo de datos cuantitativos del Foro de Cooperación Económica Asia-Pacífico y de la Secretaría de Economía, se puede destacar que: en la etapa post covid-19 se visualiza una guerra comercial con severos impactos regionales por la configuración de alianzas, bloques y posturas, con la que cada economía asumirá su posición y hará valer su competitividad.

Abstract The global economy has witnessed the consolidation of China in the world market. Ranked as Mexico’s second trading partner, China has faced a trade war with the United States, amid a clear strategy to reaffirm its regional leadership and consolidate its presence in a world economy affected by Covid-19. Taking into consideration the approach of international economic relations and emphasis on politics and trade, this article analyzes the recent relations between Mexico, China and the United States, with the aim of establishing a perspective of the trilateral relationship towards the new normality. Through an analysis based on exploratory and descriptive methodology, with the support of quantitative data from the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum and the Ministry of Economy, it can be highlighted that: in the post-Covid-19 stage, a commercial war with severe regional impacts due to the configuration of alliances, blocs and postures with which each economy will assume its position and assert its competitiveness.

RESUMEN Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial y con los procesos de globalización de finales del siglo pasado, las relaciones comerciales internacionales han ido adquiriendo una mayor importancia, lo que ha provocado tanto un aumento de la producción mundial como la aparición de bloques econômicos que pretendían reforzar e impulsar estas relaciones. Uno de estos bloques econômicos creados fue el Mercado Común del Sur (Mercosur) en 1991, teniendo como miembros Brasil, Argentina, Paraguay y Uruguay, cuyo objetivo era facilitar tanto las relaciones econômicas entre ellos como las personas. Sin embargo, el ano 2020 estuvo marcado por la aparición del nuevo coronavirus que afectó directamente a todo el flujo comercial mundial debido a las medidas restrictivas. De esta manera, el presente artículo tiene como objetivo analizar la dinàmica del comercio internacional del estado de Bahia con el Mercosur a través de las exportaciones e importaciones y detectar los efectos de la pandemia en estas variables. Para cumplir con los objetivos propuestos, además de una introducción sobre el estudio de la economia internacional, el surgimiento del Mercosur y la evolución econômica de Bahia, se utilizaron las bases de datos de exportaciones e importaciones de la Superintendencia de Estudios Econômicos y Sociales de Bahia (SEI) y del Ministerio de Desarrollo, Industria y Comercio Exterior (MDIC) para conocer las importaciones y exportaciones de Bahia, y cômo se relacionan dentro del Mercosur Los resultados obtenidos indican que hay reducciones significativas en los principales sectores de exportación a Mercosur y pequenas caídas en las importaciones.

RESUMO Após a Segunda Guerra Mundial e com os processos de globalização no final do século passado, as relações de comércio internacional vêm gradualmente ganhando maior importância, tendo como resultado tanto o aumento da produção mundial, quanto o surgimento de blocos econômicos que buscavam fortalecer e dinamizar estas relações. Um desses blocos econômicos criados foi o Mercado Comum do Sul (Mercosul) em 1991, tendo como membros: Brasil, Argentina, Paraguai e Uruguai que tinham por objetivo facilitar tanto as relações econômicas entre eles, quanto de pessoas. Contudo, o ano de 2020 foi marcado pelo surgimento do novo coronavírus que afetou diretamente todo o fluxo comercial global em virtude das medidas restritivas. Deste modo, o presente artigo tem como objetivo analisar a dinâmica de comércio internacional do estado da Bahia com o Mercosul através das exportações e importações e detectar os efeitos pandêmicos nessas variáveis. Para cumprir os objetivos propostos, além de uma introdução sobre o estudo da economia internacional, do surgimento do Mercosul, e da evolução econômica da Bahia, foram utilizadas as bases de dados de exportações e importações da Superintendência de Estudos Econômicos e Sociais da Bahia (SEI) e do Ministério de Desenvolvimento, Indústria e Comércio Exterior (MDIC) para compreender a pauta de importações e exportações da Bahia, e como elas se relacionam dentro do Mercosul. Os resultados obtidos sinalizam que há significativas reduções nos principais setores exportadores para o Mercosul e pequenas quedas nas importações.

ABSTRACT After the Second World War and with the globalization processes at the end of the last century international trade relations have gradually gained greater importance, resulting in both an increase in world production and the emergence of economic blocs that sought to strengthen and dynamize these relations. One of these economic blocs created was the Common Market of the South (Mercosur) in 1991, having as members: Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay whose objective was to facilitate both economic relations between them and people. However the year 2020 was marked by the emergence of the new coronavirus that directly affected the entire global trade flow due to restrictive measures. Thus, this article aims to analyze the dynamics of international trade between the state of Bahia and Mercosur through exports and imports and detect the pandemic effects on these variables. In order to fulfill the proposed objectives, in addition to an introduction to the study of the international economy, the emergence of Mercosur, and the economic evolution of Bahia, the databases of exports and imports of the Superintendence of Economic and Social Studies of Bahia (SEI) were used. ) and the Ministry of Development, Industry and Foreign Trade (MDIC) to understand Bahia's import and export agenda, and how they are related within Mercosur The results obtained indicate that there are significant reductions in the main exporting sectors to Mercosur and small drops in imports.

Resumen El artículo revisa el rápido ascenso de China en la economía mundial durante las últimas dos décadas y las implicaciones de ello sobre la gobernabilidad económica mundial y, en particular, en las crecientes tensiones de China con los Estados Unidos. Se examinan hitos relevantes como el ingreso de China a la Organización Mundial del Comercio (OMC), la crisis subprime y la pandemia de covid-19. Se documenta el tránsito de la guerra comercial entre ambas potencias a un conflicto por el dominio de las principales tecnologías del siglo XXI. El artículo culmina con una reflexión sobre eventuales impactos de este conflicto en el escenario económico global.

Abstract The article reviews China’s rapid rise in the world economy over the last two decades and its implications for global economic governance and, in particular, for China’s growing tensions with the United States. Relevant milestones such as China’s entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO), the subprime crisis, and the covid-19 pandemic are examined. The transition from the trade war between the two powers to a conflict for dominance of the main technologies of the 21st century is documented. The article ends with a reflection on the possible impacts of this conflict on the global economic scene.

ABSTRACT The 18th century went from a state of economic stagnation, which occurred in the last century, caused by rampant inflation, climate change and the Thirty Years' War, to a state of economic growth based on population growth, banking expansion and commercial and agricultural. revolution. These changes founded the technological and social elements necessary for an era of industrialization that would take shape in the next century. Within this historical context, the foundations of classical economic thought appear, represented by Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, etc. The writing carries out a bibliographic and hermeneutical analysis of the economic thought of the eighteenth century through, on the one hand, the review of the theoretical contributions of these thinkers and the most important conclusions made by later scholars, on the other hand, the theoretical interpretation of the foundations of the economic thought of the eighteenth century. This analysis is built on six arguments: law and natural order, income, the value of work, trade, demography, and freedom. The objective of the article is to present the arguments of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth century as the foundation of a Modernity characterized by the economic growth based on the free market.

RESUMEN El siglo XVIII pasa de un estado de estancamiento económico, ocurrido en el siglo pasado, provocado por la inflación galopante, el cambio climático y la Guerra de los Treinta Años, a un estado de crecimiento económico basado en el crecimiento demográfico, la expansión bancaria, comercial y agrícola. Estos cambios fundaron los elementos tecnológicos y sociales necesarios para una era de industrialización que tomaría forma en el próximo siglo. Dentro de este contexto histórico, aparecen los fundamentos del pensamiento económico clásico, representado por Adam Smith, Thomas Malthus, David Ricardo, etc. El escrito realiza un análisis bibliográfico y hermenéutico del pensamiento económico del siglo dieciocho mediante, por un lado, la revisión de los aportes teóricos de estos pensadores y las conclusiones más importantes realizadas por académicos posteriores, por otro lado, la interpretación teórica de los fundamentos del pensamiento económico del siglo XVIII. Este análisis se construye a partir de seis argumentos: la ley y el orden natural, los ingresos, el valor del trabajo, el comercio, la demografía y la libertad. El objetivo del escrito es presentar los argumentos de los pensadores más importantes del siglo XVIII como fundamento de una modernidad caracterizada por el crecimiento económico y basada en la libertad de mercado.

Abstract The Earthquake of 1835 that affected with more understood the area between Talca and Valdivia as a natural landmark that marks a before and after in the history of one of the cities - and is hinterland - located in the geographical frame: Concepción. Previously affected by the Guerra a Muerte, the province of Concepción remained practically inactive until the end of the war, after which it reactivated its comercial circuits. However, the aforementioned earthquake hindered everything that had been done, which was aggravated by the migration of former penquista families to Santiago and why the suburbs were filed with poor peasant families, increasing the socioeconomic crisis. Against all odds, it was possible to reactivate and modernize old economic sectors, which leads us to understand this telluric phenomenon not only as a synonym for disaster, such as the activity of the wheat mill. In this article, we have focused our attention on the coastal area of the Penquista province, known by the Mapuche communities as Lafkenmapu, and occupied as a fundamental source the offices contained in the Ministerio del Interior in the Archivo Nacional Histórico in Santiago de Chile.

Resumen El terremoto de 1835, que afectó con más fuerza a la zona comprendida entre Talca y Valdivia, ha sido entendido como un hito natural que marca un antes y un después en la historia de una de las ciudades - y su hinterland - situadas en dicho marco geográfico: Concepción. Aso lada previamente por la guerra de independencia y la guerra a muerte, la provincia de Concepción se mantuvo prácticamente inactiva hasta el fin del contexto bélico, luego de lo cual reactivó sus circuitos comerciales. Sin embargo, el sismo referido entorpeció todo lo realizado, lo que se vio agravado por la migración de antiguas familias penquistas a Santiago y a que los arrabales se llenaron de familias campesinas pobres, acrecentando la crisis socioeconómica. Contra todo pronóstico, se pudieron reactivar y modernizar antiguos rubros económicos, lo que lleva a entender este fenómeno telúrico no solo como sinónimo de desastre, sino que también de nuevas oportunidades, como fue la actividad de la molinería del trigo. En el presente artículo, hemos concentrado nuestra mirada en la zona costera de la provincia penquista, conocida por las comunidades mapuches como lafkenmapu, y ocupado como fuente fundamental los oficios contenidos en el fondo Minis terio del Interior del Archivo Nacional Histórico en Santiago de Chile.