Lean six sigma (LSS) is 'n belangrike besigheidstrategie vir organisasies, insluitend klein en mediumgrootte ondernemings (KMO's). Oor die jare het KMO's 'n potensieel beduidende impak op verskeie lande se bruto binnelandse produk (BBP) gehad. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsing is om die kritieke suksesfaktore (CSF's) vir lean six sigma (LSS) implementering in die Koninkryk van Saoedi-Arabië se KMO's te ondersoek, en om by te dra tot die ontdekking van die faktore wat lei tot besigheidsukses, verhoogde inkomste en verbeterde mededingende voordele. Die studie het 29 faktore uit vorige navorsing geïdentifiseer ten einde die suksesvolle implementering van LSS in die KMO-sektor in veral Saoedi-Arabië te lei. Die CSF's is verfyn, wat 'n gekonsolideerde lys van 14 faktore opgelewer het. 'n Hoofkomponent-analise (PCA) het vier hooffaktore geïdentifiseer: leierskapondersteuning en bestuurstruktuur, tegnologiese vermoëns, kennisverkryging, en kreatiwiteit en innovasie. Hierdie faktore kan die sukses van KMO's in Saoedi-Arabië beïnvloed deur LSS in hul besigheidsprosesse aan te neem.

Lean six sigma (LSS) is an important business strategy for organisations, including small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Over the years, SMEs have had a potentially significant impact on various countries' gross domestic product (GDP). The main purpose of this research is to investigate the critical success factors (CSFs) for lean six sigma (LSS) implementation in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's SMEs, and to contribute to discovering the factors that lead to business success, increase revenue, and enhanced competitive advantages. The study identified 29 factors from previous research in order to guide the successful implementation of LSS in the SME sector in Saudi Arabia in particular. The CSFs were refined, producing a consolidated list of 14 factors. A principal components analysis (PCA) identified four main factors: leadership support and management structure, technological capabilities, knowledge acquisition, and creativity and innovation. These factors could influence the success of SMEs in Saudi Arabia by adopting LSS in their business processes.

Abstract Mexico’s school enrolment in the 2021-2022 school year corresponds to 5.07 million students (5.5 % in higher technical and normal levels; 86.2 % in bachelor’s degrees; 7.2 % in specialties and master’s degrees; 1.1 % in doctorates), representing 4 % of the total national population. The article is structured on the basis of the deductive method and with a quantitative archetype; its objective is to determine the correlation between the higher education student population and economic growth and human development. It is hypothesized that higher education will contribute significantly to the achievement of these objectives, in the first instance to try to achieve economic growth, and then to gain access to economic, social, sustainable and human development. The hypothesis was confirmed that in Mexico during the period from 2010 to 2022, the highest number of higher education students can explain 82.6 % of the variations experienced in the increase of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) or economic growth. It was considered that the highest levels of education in the country (doctorate and master’s degrees) would have a decisive influence on the increase in GDP (economic growth) and a better position in the Human Development Index (HDI), but it turned out that the most influential variable in the estimated linear regressions is enrolment at the bachelor’s degree.

Resumen La matrícula escolar de México en el ciclo escolar 2021-2022 corresponde a 5,07 millones de alumnos (5,5 % en nivel técnico superior y normal, 86,2 % en licenciatura, 7,2 % en especialidad y maestría, y 1,1 % en doctorado), representando el 4 % de la población total nacional. El artículo se estructura con base en el método deductivo y con un arquetipo cuantitativo, teniendo como objetivo conocer el estado de correlación existente entre el universo estudiantil de educación superior con el crecimiento económico y el desarrollo humano. Se parte de la hipótesis que la educación superior contribuirá significativamente al logro de estos objetivos, en primera instancia, para tratar de alcanzar el crecimiento económico, y después, para lograr tener acceso al desarrollo económico, social, sustentable y humano. Se confirmó la hipótesis de que, en México, durante el período de 2010 a 2022, el mayor número de alumnado de nivel superior puede explicar el 82,6 % de las variaciones experimentadas en el aumento del Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) o crecimiento económico. Se consideraba que los más altos niveles de estudios en el país (doctorado y maestría) influirían de forma determinante en el incremento del PIB (crecimiento económico) y en una mejor posición del Índice de Desarrollo Humano (IDH), pero resultó que la variable más influyente en las regresiones lineales estimadas es la matrícula de nivel licenciatura.

Resumo Neste artigo, foram investigados os efeitos de curto e longo prazo das variáveis macroeconômicas sobre os indicadores socioeconômicos do setor agrícola, incluindo índice de preços, desemprego rural e produto interno bruto (PIB) sobre os primeiros seis programas de desenvolvimento do governo. Foi utilizada a abordagem de atraso distribuído autorregressivo (ARDL). Os resultados mostraram que no curto prazo a taxa de inflação com atraso tem um efeito significativo e negativo sobre o emprego no setor agrícola e aumenta o nível de desemprego rural. Os resultados sugerem que os efeitos da liquidez e da taxa de inflação no curto prazo sobre o PIB são negativos e os gastos do governo no curto prazo têm efeito positivo sobre o índice de preços agrícolas. No longo prazo, o efeito dessas variáveis sobre a inflação agrícola é semelhante ao de curto prazo, mas com a diferença de que as elasticidades foram maiores.

Abstract In this paper, the short-term and long-term effects of macroeconomic variables on socio-economic indicators of agricultural sector, including price index, rural unemployment and gross domestic product (GDP) over the first to six government development programs were investigated. The auto-regressive distributed lag approach (ARDL) was used. The results showed that in the short run, inflation rate with a delay has a significant and negative effect on employment in the agricultural sector and increases the level of rural unemployment. The findings suggest that the effects of liquidity and inflation rate in the short run on the GDP are negative and government spending in the short run has a positive effect on the agricultural price index. In the long run, the effect of these variables on agricultural inflation is similar to the short term, but with the difference that the elasticities were larger.

Abstract This article evaluated the effect of soybean cultivation on the level of socioeconomic development and economic growth of the Brazilian AMC's (Minimum Comparable Areas), between the years 1991 and 2010. For this, the models Differences in Differences with Propensity Score were estimated. (DDM), evaluating the impact of “being a soybean producer” on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita and on the dimensions of the Municipal Human Development Index (HDI-M). The results showed that soybean production did not impact the global HDI-M, with a positive effect only on the HDI - knowledge. In the case of the longevity dimension, a negative impact was identified, possibly due to the intensive use of pesticides, which affects the health of rural workers and residents of nearby locations. In the case of economic growth, the effect was positive, inferring that “being a soy-producing AMC” tends, on average, to intensify GDP per capita.

Resumo Este artigo avalia o efeito do cultivo da soja sobre o nível de desenvolvimento socioeconômico e do crescimento econômico das AMC’s (Áreas Mínimas Comparáveis) brasileiras, entre os anos de 1991 e 2010. Para isso, foram estimados os modelos Diferenças em Diferenças com Escore de Propensão (DDM), avaliando o impacto de ser produtor de soja no Produto Interno Bruto (PIB) per capita e nas dimensões do Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal (IDH-M). Os resultados demonstraram que a produção de soja não impactou o IDH-M global, apresentando efeito positivo apenas no IDHM-conhecimento. No caso da dimensão longevidade, identificou-se um impacto negativo, possivelmente em decorrência do uso intensivo de agrotóxicos, que afeta a saúde dos trabalhadores rurais e moradores de localidades próximas. No caso do crescimento econômico, o efeito foi positivo, inferindo que “ser uma AMC produtora de soja” tende, na média, a intensificar o PIB per capita.

RESUMO Este estudo objetivou analisar os fatores contextuais do desempenho do atendimento odontológico para gestantes na Atenção Básica entre municípios baianos. A série temporal utilizou dados secundários dos 417 municípios, entre 2018 e 2022. O desfecho foi a meta do indicador de proporção de gestantes com atendimento odontológico por município: insuficiente (<60,0%) ou suficiente (≥60,0%). As variáveis contextuais foram: fatores sociodemográficos (Porte Populacional, Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano Municipal, Produto Interno Bruto municipal per capita – PIB, Índice de Gini da renda domiciliar per capita, Índice de Vulnerabilidade Social e Núcleos Regionais de Saúde) e serviço de saúde (Cobertura de Estratégia Saúde da Família – ESF e de Saúde Bucal). Realizou-se regressão de Poisson uni e multivariada (p<0,05). No último quadrimestre de cada ano: 2,9% (2018), 2,4% (2019), 5,3% (2020), 37,2% (2021) e 71,2% (2022) dos municípios atingiram a meta. No terceiro quadrimestre de 2021, os municípios com menor PIB, e em 2021 e 2022, com maior cobertura de ESF, apresentaram maior chance de atingir a meta. Conclui-se que houve aumento da proporção de atendimento odontológico para gestante ao longo dos anos entre os municípios baianos e atingir a meta foi associado a fatores sociodemográficos e de serviço de saúde.

ABSTRACT This study aimed to analyze the contextual factors of the performance of dental care for pregnant women in Primary Care among municipalities in Bahia. The time series used secondary data from 417 municipalities between 2018-2022. The outcome was the target indicator for the proportion of pregnant women with dental care per municipality: insufficient (<60.0%) or sufficient (≥60.0%). The contextual variables were: sociodemographic factors (Population Size, Municipal Human Development Index, municipal Gross Domestic Product per capita – GDP, Gini Index of household income per capita, Social Vulnerability Index and Regional Health Centers) and health service (Coverage of Family Health Strategy – ESF and Oral Health). Poisson regression was performed (p<0.05). In the last four months of each year: 2.9% (2018), 2.4% (2019), 5.3% (2020), 37.2% (2021) and 71.2% (2022) of the municipalities reached the goal. In the third four months of 2021, municipalities with lower GDP, and in 2021 and 2022, with greater ESF coverage, had a greater chance of reaching the target. It is concluded that there was an increase in the proportion of dental care for pregnant women over the years among the municipalities in Bahia, and achieving the goal was associated with sociodemographic and health service factors.

BACKGROUND: As small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are the primary source of job creation in Nigeria and contribute 48% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP), their performance must be enhanced and sustainability ensured. The article suggests that through competitor orientation and proactiveness, SME managers and owners can achieve competitive advantage which ultimately promotes firm performance. AIM: The article aims to examine how competitor orientation and proactiveness in competitive advantage enhance the performance of SMEs in Nigeria. SETTING: The study focused on registered SME owners and managers who are operating in Nigeria, using Lagos State as a case study. METHODS: This study was conducted through administering questionnaires to owners and/or managers of SMEs as the unit of analysis. A quantitative research design was used with stratified and simple random sampling as the sampling method, with the sample comprising 100 SME owners and/or managers. RESULTS: The results of the study indicated that competitive advantage mediates the relationship between competitor orientation, proactiveness and SMEs' performance indirectly. It further revealed that competitor orientation and proactiveness have significant effects on SMEs' performance. CONCLUSION AND CONTRIBUTION: The article reveals how competitive advantage, which is influenced by competitor orientation and proactiveness, contributes to increased SMEs' performance in SME sectors. Thus, to gain a competitive edge over their rivals, the study recommends that SME owners and managers consider competitor orientation and proactiveness more seriously, as these factors ultimately boost their performance.

Resumen La sociedad global está en crisis debido a cambios ambientales, sociales y económicos exacerbados por la propagación de la COVID-19 entre el 2019 y el 2023; sumado a esto el deterioro del sistema financiero del Estado ecuatoriano ocasionando una crisis a nivel local. Este documento es un aporte para generar una reflexión crítica sobre el uso de las regalías obtenidas por conceptos de extracción petrolera que durante los últimos 40 años ha sido el principal rubro que alimenta al Producto Interno Bruto del Ecuador. Estas regalías no se han invertido de manera sostenible en sectores como educación, salud y servicios. Un cambio de la matriz productiva del Estado ecuatoriano debe considerar que los acuerdos nacionales e internacionales incluyendo a los países importadores de hidrocarburos para enfrentar el cambio climático, deben reducir su dependencia de este tipo de energía. A medida que se da esta transición energética, los países del sur global, ven comprometida su economía, pues no cuentan con un plan para enfrentar este escenario. Finalmente, esta crisis sistémica trae enormes desafíos para países en vías de desarrollo como Ecuador, cuya economía está basada en un modelo poco diversificado y extractivista, evidenciándose la necesidad de replantear un nuevo esquema de desarrollo. En este sentido, en el presente artículo: (1) reflexionamos sobre el modelo de crecimiento económico actual vs. el modelo de transición energética planteado desde diversos sectores de la sociedad global, (2) analizamos las conexiones entre el equilibrio ecológico, la salud y la economía global, y la pandemia de COVID-19; y (3) examinamos las alternativas y desafíos económicos basados en el aprovechamiento de la biodiversidad y los servicios ecosistémicos para enfrentar la era post petrolera en el Ecuador. En conclusión: la educación pública en todos sus niveles es una inversión estratégica para cualquier Estado soberano, que tiene como papel fundamental generar las condiciones necesarias para transformar la sociedad y mantener su matriz cultural bajo principios elementales, donde el reconocimiento de las diversas formas de organización de la sociedad son respetados y fortalecidos, tales como los pueblos y nacionalidades indígenas soberanos de sus territorios, los procesos de reproducción de la vida material, uso y aprovechamiento de los recursos naturales, por lo que sugerimos que se estudie el “Kawsay Sacha”. Para enfrentar las crisis económicas y ambientales es imperativo fomentar una bioeconomía diversificada, potenciadora del desarrollo de varios sectores claves como la producción de alimentos y novedosos emprendimientos vinculados al uso sostenible de la biodiversidad y de los servicios ecosistémicos. La inversión en educación en el Ecuador sigue siendo menor al 4% del presupuesto total anual; la sociedad debe considerar que cualquier intento de implementar proyectos de crecimiento económico sustentable no es posible, sin duplicar de forma anual el gasto en educación.

Abstract Global society is in crisis due to environmental, social and economic changes. This exacerbated by the spread of COVID-19 between 2019 and 2023 and the deterioration of the financial system of the Ecuadorian State has led us to a crisis at the local level. This document is a contribution to generate a critical reflection on the use of royalties obtained from oil extraction, which for the last 40 years has been the main item that feeds the Gross Domestic Product of Ecuador. These royalties have not been invested in sectors such as education, health and services. The change in the productive matrix of the Ecuadorian State must consider that the agreements to face climate change include that countries that import hydrocarbons reduce their dependence on this type of energy. As this energy transition occurs, the countries of the global south, see their economy compromised, since they do not have a plan to face this scenario. Finally, this systemic crisis brings enormous challenges for developing countries like Ecuador, whose economy is based on a poorly diversified and extractivist model, evidencing the need to rethink its development scheme. In this sense, in this article: (1) we reflect on the current economic growth model vs. the energy transition model proposed by various sectors of global society (2) we analyze the connections between ecological balance, health and the global economy, and the COVID-19 pandemic; and (3) we examine the alternatives and economic challenges based on the use of biodiversity and ecosystem services to face the post-oil era in Ecuador. The conclusions: Public education at all levels is a strategic investment for any sovereign State, whose fundamental role is to generate the necessary conditions to transform society and maintain its cultural matrix under elementary principles, where the recognition of the various forms of organization of society are respected and strengthened, such as the sovereign indigenous peoples and nationalities and their territories, the processes of reproduction of material life, use and exploitation of natural resources, for which we suggest that the "Kawsay Sacha" be studied. In order to face the economic and environmental crises, it is imperative to promote a diversified bioeconomy that enhances the development of strategic sectors such as food production and innovative ventures linked to the sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Investment in education is still less than 4% of Ecuador's total annual budget and society must consider that any attempt to implement sustainable economic growth projects is not possible without duplicating annually the budget in education.

Summary: The hydrological region 21 coast of Oaxaca has an active tourist dynamic, it generates significant economic income, and it is considered the fourth most important socioeconomic region in the state of Oaxaca. Similarly, hydrological region 23 coast of Chiapas, has an economy governed by tertiary sector activities and is comprised of the Istmo-Costa and Soconusco socioeconomic regions, the latter is the main region that contributes to the gross domestic product of the state of Chiapas. It should be noted that this socioeconomic growth has required a greater demand for water resources, which has led to water pollution. The deterioration of the area’s water resources is caused by the discharge of wastewater, solid waste and agrochemicals into natural waterways. In order to assess the state of the water resources of hydrological regions 21 and 23, 31 sampling sites were established in the spring of 2021 distributed in the main streams. Each sample was analyzed for chemical properties: pH, electrical conductivity (EC), major anions and cations (CO3 2-, HCO3-, Cl-, SO4 2-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+), total dissolved solids (TDS), percentage of sodium (%Na), adsorption ratio of sodium (RAS), residual sodium carbonate (RSC), permeability index (PI), as well as a hydrochemical evaluation. The waters of the hydrological regions 21 and 23 present as dominant facies the calcium-magnesium bicarbonate, whose possible origin is a consequence of the dilution process of the geological material (water-rock interaction) with low and medium concentrations. With respect to salinity, 45.16% are low salinity waters and 93.55% of the sites have low sodium, therefore, they are considered recommended for irrigation with moderate restrictions.

Resumen: La región hidrológica 21 costa de Oaxaca, presenta una activa dinámica turística, en ella se genera un ingreso económico importante y es considerada la cuarta región socioeconómica más importante del estado de Oaxaca. De igual manera, la Región Hidrológica 23 costa de Chiapas, tiene una economía regida por las actividades del sector terciario, está comprendida por las regiones socioeconómicas Istmo-Costa y Soconusco, ésta última es la principal región que aporta al producto interno bruto del estado de Chiapas. Cabe señalar, que dicho crecimiento socioeconómico ha exigido una mayor demanda del recurso agua, que ha ocasionado la contaminación del mismo. El deterioro de los recursos hídricos de la zona tiene su origen en la descarga de aguas residuales, de desechos sólidos y de agroquímicos a los cauces naturales. Con la finalidad de valorar el estado de los recursos hídricos de las regiones hidrológicas 21 y 23, se establecieron 31 sitios de muestreo en la primavera de 2021 distribuidos en las corrientes principales. En cada muestra se analizaron las propiedades químicas: pH, conductividad eléctrica (CE), aniones y cationes principales (CO3 2-, HCO3-, Cl-, SO4 2-, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ y K+), sólidos totales disueltos (STD), porcentaje de sodio (%Na), relación de adsorción de sodio (RAS), carbonato de sodio residual (CSR) e índice de permeabilidad (IP), así como una evaluación hidroquímica. Las aguas de las regiones hidrológicas 21 y 23 presentan como facie dominante la bicarbonatada cálcico-magnésica, cuyo posible origen es consecuencia del proceso de dilución del material geológico (interacción agua-roca) con concentraciones bajas y medias. Con respecto a la salinidad el 45.16% son aguas de salinidad baja y el 93.55% de los sitios tiene baja sodicidad, por lo tanto, se consideran recomendables para el riego con restricciones moderadas.

Abstract The effect of manufacturing production on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and on total and manufacturing productivity, as well as the dynamic effect created in the economy by the industrial sector, under Kaldor’s view, is a topic under debate due to the patterns presented in deindustrialisation and industrial productivity in developed countries. However, developing countries such as some in the Latin American region have presented different patterns. This article aims to study the validity of Kaldor’s Laws in the largest economies in Latin America and compare results with the case of European economies. For this, an econometric methodology of static and dynamic panel data is used in a sample of 12 countries in the time period between 1992 and 2021. The study yields particular results such as a small coefficient between the growth of manufacturing and its productivity, but a dynamic effect among the two variables.

Resumen El efecto de la producción manufacturera sobre el crecimiento del producto interno bruto (PIB) y sobre la productividad total y manufacturera, así como el efecto dinámico creado en la economía por el sector industrial, en la visión de Kaldor, es un tema en debate debido a los patrones presentados en la desindustrialización y la productividad industrial en países desarrollados. Sin embargo, los países en desarrollo, como algunos de América Latina, han presentado patrones diferentes. Este artículo tiene como objetivo estudiar la validez de las leyes de Kaldor en las economías más grandes de América Latina y comparar los resultados con el caso de economías de Europa. Para ello, utilizamos una metodología econométrica de datos de panel estáticos y dinámicos en una muestra de 12 países en el periodo de tiempo comprendido entre 1992 y 2021. El estudio arroja resultados particulares, como un pequeño coeficiente entre el crecimiento de la manufactura y su productividad, pero un efecto dinámico entre las dos variables.

Hierdie artikel fokus op die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste enjaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste van Orania in 2021. Met die oog hierop is Orania se sosio-ekonomiese opname, waarvan die veldwerk in 2021 afgehandel is en waarvan die resultate in 2022 gepubliseer is, tesaam met die besigheidsopname van 2022 ontleed. Die Orania Sakekamer reik koopbewyse uit wat bekend staan as die ora en wat op 'n een-tot-een grondslag gekoppel is aan die Suid-Afrikaanse rand. Die ora word afgekort deur middel van die simbool "φ". Ora-koepons sirkuleer as 'n wettige betaalmiddel in die dorp, teen φ1,00 gelyk aan R1,00. Aangesien inwoners van Orania verkies om bedrae in ora te benoem en nie die rand nie, word die navorsingsbevindings hier in ora gerapporteer. Die totale jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste van die inwoners van Orania in 2021 is op sowat φ300 miljoen beraam. Per capita jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste vir die 2 377 inwoners word dus op sowat φ125 000 beraam. Hierteenoor word die jaarlikse inkomste van huishoudings in Orania in 2021 op sowat φ200 miljoen beraam, wat heelwat laer is as die beraming vir jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste vir dieselfde tydperk. Hierdie verskil in ramings kan nie met bestaande opnamedata verklaar word nie. Die ramings van die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste en jaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste word gestaaf deur die data wat verkry is uit die Orania-besigheidsopname. Die omset van sake-ondernemings in Orania in 2021 word op φ281 950 000 beraam en sake-eienaars het gerapporteer dat 51 persent van hul omset afkomstig was vanuit inwoners van Orania. Daar is sekere opnamefoute in die data, terwyl bykomende inligting nodig is om die ramings te verbeter. Inligting oor die huishoudelike besparing en persoonlike inkomstebelasting wat betaal word, sal die ramings kan verbeter. Inligting oor die netto betaling van belasting op toegevoegde waarde (BTW) deur sake-ondernemings sal ook hiertoe bydra. Bykomende inligting is onder meer nodig om Orania se bruto geografiese produk te beraam. Die gevolgtrekking kan nogtans gemaak word dat die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste en jaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste van Orania in 2021 tussen φ200 miljoen en φ300 miljoen beloop het. Die beraming laat 'n marge van 50 persent, wat statisties groot is, maar bied nietemin 'n maatstaf waarvolgens toekomstige bevindings oor dieselfde onderwerp met mekaar en met die bevindings uit die verlede vergelyk kan word. Daar moet ook tot die slotsom geraak word dat die groeivlak van Orania se persoonlike en huishoudelike inkomste sedert 1991, toe dit vir alle doeleindes op nul gestaan het, beduidend is.

Orania is situated on the southern bank of the Orange River in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The closest towns are Hopetown, 43 kilometres to the north-west, Vanderkloof, 49 kilometers to the south-east, and Petrusville, 51 kilometers to the south-east. Orania is about 160 kilometres south of Kimberley. A unique aspect of Orania is that all inhabitants speak Afrikaans and are of the white population group. All business activities, education, social interaction and religious activities are conducted exclusively in Afrikaans. It is therefore described as an Afrikaner cultural enclave. Research on various aspects of Orania has been undertaken and published, but none to date has estimated the level of total economic activity in the town. This article addresses this gap in extant literature by focusing on the annual personal income and the annual household income of Orania in 2021, as based on data collected for the most recent sosio-economic and business surveys that had been completed for the town in December 2021 and early in 2022, respectively. At the time of these surveys, Orania'spopulation comprised 2 377 people, of which 1 635 were 20 years and older, and thus regarded as receiving of some sort of income. Simultaneously, Orania comprised 649 households and 220 businesses. The survey results are very complete, reporting data for 712 individuals of 20 years and older (43,5 per cent of the universum), 572 households (88,1 per cent of the universum) and all 220 businesses in Orania. Survey results with such a high response rate are uncommon. The Orania Sakekamer [chamber of commerce] issues vouchers linked on a one-to-one basis to the South African rand, known as the ora. The latter is abbreviated as φ and circulated as the legal tender in the town, at a rate of φ 1,00 equals to R1,00. Given the preference among Orania's inhabitants to refer to amounts in ora, rather than in rand, this article reports the research findings in ora, rather than in rand. Based on an analysis of the survey data, the total personal annual income of Orania's residents in 2021 was estimated at some φ 300 million. Per capita personal annual income for the 2 377 inhabitants was therefore estimated at some φ 125 000. This is about 20 per cent larger than South Africa's gross domestic product per capita of R102 982 in 2021. These results seem plausible, as Orania does not have an unempoyment problem, while South Africa's unemployment rate in 2021 exceeded 30 per cent. In contrast, the annual household income of households in Orania in 2021 was estimated to be some φ 200 million. This is considerably lower than the estimate for personal annual income for the same period. The difference in estimates cannot be explained in terms of the existing survey data. It can only be ascribed to differences in the interpretations of the questionnaires at the time of collecting the data. The estimates of annual personal income and annual household income show some correlation with the survey data obtained from the Orania business survey. Turnover of business enterprises in the town in 2021 is estimated at φ281 950 000, and business owners reported that 51 per cent of their turnover was generated by residents of Orania. There are some survey discrepancies as evidenced by the data, and additional information is needed to improve the estimates. Information on household savings and personal income tax paid will help improve the validity of the estimates. Information on net payment of value added tax (VAT) will also cause enhancement of their validity. In addition, more information is necessary to calculate Orania's gross geographic product. The conclusion must nonetheless be drawn that the annual personal income and annual household income of Orania in 2021 amounted to between φ200 million and φ300 million. The estimate leaves a margin of 50 percent, which is statistically considerable, while it nonetheless provides a benchmark for future comparison in research on the same subject. Finally, the fact that Orania'spersonal and household income grew to this level from virtually nothing in 1991 must be given its due: it is impressive.

Abstract Knowing the size, dynamics and main causes of informality is essential for the adoption of feasible public policies. Thus, in order to contribute to the literature, this article intends to analyze the behavior of informality in a sample of Latin American countries between 2002 and 2015. The empirical strategy will use the Panel Vector Autoregression (VAR) method to circumvent endogeneity problems between level of informality and its main determinants. The results of the estimation of Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) and the analyses of Impulse Response Functions (IRF) highlight the negative effect of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita on informality and the positive effects of unemployment rate and taxes on the size of informal economy in relation to the official GDP.

Resumo É fundamental conhecer o tamanho, a dinâmica e as principais causas da informalidade para adoção de políticas públicas factíveis. Assim, a fim de contribuir com a literatura, este artigo pretende analisar o comportamento da informalidade em uma amostra de países da América Latina entre 2002 e 2015. A estratégia empírica usará o método de Vetores Autorregressivos (VAR) em Painel para contornar problemas de endogeneidade entre o nível de informalidade e seus principais determinantes. Os resultados da estimação do Generalized method of moments (GMM) e as análises das Funções de Resposta ao Impulso (FRIs) ressaltam o efeito negativo do Produto Interno Bruto (PIB) per capita sobre a informalidade e os efeitos positivos da taxa de desemprego e dos impostos sobre o tamanho da economia informal em relação ao PIB oficial.

Abstract Objective: The objective of this paper is assessed the nexus among health status, economic growth, and the Gini index in North America and its countries using a panel model. Materials and Method: The materials consist of annual data regarding life expectancy, government health expenditure as percentage of the gross domestic product, Gini index, and gross domestic product at constant 2015 US$ for the period 2000-2019. The method applies a panel model for North America and its three countries: Canada, Mexico and The United States. North America diversity treatment among countries is dealt with fixed and random effects. Results: North America inhabitants health status are negatively influenced by an increasing income inequality, and a reduction on economic growth. The country that expends more in health care is The United States, follow by Canada and Mexico. The biggest reduction on life expectancy from an increase in income inequality is in The United States, followed by Canada and Mexico. Life expectancy increases when Canada and The United States experience economic growth. The countries with inarticulate health policy responses to an increase in income inequality are first Mexico followed by The United States. Conclusions: In North America and its countries an increasing income inequality reduces life expectancy, and government health expenditure. Economic growth benefits life expectancy and government health expenditure. Health status seems to improve with a reduction in income inequality and a greater public health expenditure. Therefore, policies that increases income inequality and reduces public health expenditure seems to be advocates of a reduction: in health status, population welfare and economic growth.

Resumen: Objetivo: Un análisis cuantitativo de las relaciones entre salud, crecimiento económico e índice de Gini en América del Norte y sus países se realiza mediante un modelo de panel. El estado de salud está representado por la esperanza de vida y los sistemas de salud pública por el gasto público en salud. El crecimiento económico es el cambio porcentual del producto interno bruto. La desigualdad de ingresos se representa con el índice de Gini. Materiales y método: Los materiales consisten en datos anuales de esperanza de vida, gasto público en salud como porcentaje del producto interno bruto, índice de Gini y producto interno bruto en dólares estadounidenses constantes de 2015 para el período 2000-2019. El método consiste en aplicar un modelo de panel para América del Norte y sus tres países: Canadá, México y Estados Unidos. El tratamiento de la diversidad entre los países de América del Norte es abordada con efectos fijos y aleatorios. Resultados: El estado de salud de los habitantes de América del Norte se ve influenciado negativamente por la creciente desigualdad de ingresos y la reducción del crecimiento económico. El país que más gasta en salud es los Estados Unidos, seguido de Canadá y México. La mayor reducción en la esperanza de vida debido a un aumento en la desigualdad de ingresos se encuentra en los Estados Unidos, seguido de Canadá y México. La esperanza de vida aumenta cuando Canadá y Estados Unidos experimentan crecimiento económico. Los países con respuestas de política de salud desarticuladas ante un aumento en la desigualdad de ingresos son primero México seguido de Estados Unidos. Conclusiones: Las políticas que aumentan la desigualdad de ingresos y reducen el gasto público en salud parecen ser promotoras de una reducción: en el estado de salud, el bienestar de la población, y el crecimiento económico.

Lean six sigma (LSS) is an important business strategy for organisations, including small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Over the years, SMEs have had a potentially significant impact on various countries' gross domestic product (GDP). The main purpose of this research is to investigate the critical success factors (CSFs) for lean six sigma (LSS) implementation in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia's SMEs, and to contribute to discovering the factors that lead to business success, increase revenue, and enhanced competitive advantages. The study identified 29 factors from previous research in order to guide the successful implementation of LSS in the SME sector in Saudi Arabia in particular. The CSFs were refined, producing a consolidated list of 14 factors. A principal components analysis (PCA) identified four main factors: leadership support and management structure, technological capabilities, knowledge acquisition, and creativity and innovation. These factors could influence the success of SMEs in Saudi Arabia by adopting LSS in their business processes.

Lean six sigma (LSS) is 'n belangrike besigheidstrategie vir organisasies, insluitend klein en mediumgrootte ondernemings (KMO's). Oor die jare het KMO's 'n potensieel beduidende impak op verskeie lande se bruto binnelandse produk (BBP) gehad. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsing is om die kritieke suksesfaktore (CSF's) vir lean six sigma (LSS) implementering in die Koninkryk van Saoedi-Arabië se KMO's te ondersoek, en om by te dra tot die ontdekking van die faktore wat lei tot besigheidsukses, verhoogde inkomste en verbeterde mededingende voordele. Die studie het 29 faktore uit vorige navorsing geïdentifiseer ten einde die suksesvolle implementering van LSS in die KMO-sektor in veral Saoedi-Arabië te lei. Die CSF's is verfyn, wat 'n gekonsolideerde lys van 14 faktore opgelewer het. 'n Hoofkomponent-analise (PCA) het vier hooffaktore geïdentifiseer: leierskapondersteuning en bestuurstruktuur, tegnologiese vermoëns, kennisverkryging, en kreatiwiteit en innovasie. Hierdie faktore kan die sukses van KMO's in Saoedi-Arabië beïnvloed deur LSS in hul besigheidsprosesse aan te neem.

Abstract According to the goals proposed and ratified by the Paris Agreement on 2015 and by the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in 2021, the world should attempt to maintain the global average temperature well below 2° above pre-industrial levels in the long run and to restrain the temperature increase to 1.5° C above pre-industrial levels. One country undertaking bold and charismatic environmental action is Costa Rica. Since the late 1960s, this country has implemented both avant-garde policymaking and practices in the environmental field. As a means of contributing with the analysis and understanding of how to determine this country's effectiveness and efficiency in its environmental efforts, this research aims to analyze the relationship between Costa Rica's CO2 emissions per capita with economic growth, expressed via Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita (constant 2015 dollars). Thus, the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis will be tested to determine if Costa Rica is a good example. Using the database from the World Bank's (2023) World Development Indicators and from Global Change Data Lab (2023) as a basis of analysis and through the application of quantitative correlational analysis with a type of longitudinal nonexperimental design with time-series data from the year 1990 to the year 2021, it is argued that increases in CO2 emissions per capita are influenced positively with a statistical significance at a 5% error margin by GDP per capita (constant 2015 US dollars), and by energy consumption per capita. Alternatively, CO2 emissions per capita are influenced negatively with statistical significance at 5 % error margin respectively by GDP per capita squared (constant 2015 US dollars) and land use change per capita. However, these results cannot be confirmed with reliability and robustness because of the ambivalence and ambiguity present in the proposed model as a consequence of the likelihood of the presence of multicollinearity among the variables and the lack of normality of the dependent variable. Despite the initial promising results of a high goodness-of fit test, an acceptable F-statistic, the lack of heteroscedasticity, and an acceptable result showing no autocorrelation presence, the hypothesis of this study cannot be answered affirmatively. Despite these results, there is room for more research to confirm if the EKC hypothesis continues to be applicable in this country. This study could serve as a reference point for decision-makers regionally and internationally to guide their local environmental efforts towards concrete achievements for obtaining a clean planet in the future.

Resumen De acuerdo con el Acuerdo de París en 2015 y la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático en 2021, el mundo debería mantener la temperatura media mundial muy por debajo de los 2 grados Celsius, considerando los niveles preindustriales a largo plazo, y contener el aumento de temperatura en 1.50 grados Celsius por encima de los niveles preindustriales. Costa Rica es un país con una acción climática atrevida y con mucho carisma. Desde finales de la década de 1960, este país ha implementado políticas y prácticas de vanguardia en el campo ambiental. Esta investigación explica la relación entre las emisiones de CO2 per cápita de Costa Rica, con el crecimiento económico expresado a través del Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) per cápita (dólares constantes de 2015). Así, se probará la hipótesis de si la teoría de la Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK) se aplica en Costa Rica. Basados en Banco Mundial (2023), World Development Indicators, y de Global Change Data Lab (2023), y mediante un análisis correlacional cuantitativo con un tipo de diseño no experimental longitudinal con datos de series de tiempo desde el año 1990 hasta el año 2021, se argumenta que las emisiones de CO2 per cápita se ven influenciados positivamente con significación estadística al 5 % de margen de error, por el PIB per cápita (dólares constantes de 2015), y por el consumo de energía per cápita. Alternativamente, las emisiones de CO2 per cápita son influenciadas negativamente por el PIB per cápita al cuadrado (dólares estadounidenses constantes de 2015), y por el cambio de uso del suelo per cápita. Sin embargo, estos resultados no pueden ser confirmados con confiabilidad y robustez debido a la ambivalencia y ambigüedad del modelo propuesto. Esto se da como consecuencia de la probabilidad de presencia de multicolinealidad entre las variables, y la falta de normalidad de la variable dependiente. A pesar de los prometedores resultados iniciales de una prueba de bondad de ajuste alta, un estadístico F aceptable, la falta de heterocedasticidad y la no presencia de autocorrelación, la hipótesis de este estudio no puede responderse afirmativamente. A pesar de estos resultados, hay espacio para más investigaciones para confirmar si la hipótesis de EKC se aplica en Costa Rica. Este estudio podría servir como punto de referencia para que los tomadores de decisiones a nivel regional e internacional orienten sus esfuerzos ambientales locales hacia la sostenibilidad planetaria.

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación fue cuantificar la contribución de la agroindustria alimentaria mexicana al producto interno bruto nacional, así como calcular la tasa media de crecimiento anual durante un periodo de 27 años que va desde 1993 a 2019, que consideró los últimos cuatro periodos sexenales y determinar el aporte a la industria manufacturera y a la economía nacional. La metodología fue de tipo documental con las siguientes etapas: i) selección del tema a estudiar; ii) acopio de información de fuentes documentales secundarias, la cual fue fundamentalmente de las cuentas nacionales del INEGI; iii) elaboración del plan de investigación; iv) organización de la información, para lo cual se utilizó el sistema de clasificación industrial de América del Norte del Instituto Nacional de Geografía e Informática; y v) utilización de la función estadística que para el caso fue la tasa media de crecimiento anual. Se encontró que la industria alimentaria presentó a lo largo del periodo una tendencia positiva, con una tasa media de crecimiento anual de 2.21% y con un paralelismo con la industria manufacturera, que es el sector que engloba a la industria alimentaria; sin embargo, esta última presentó algunas caídas en su crecimiento. La agroindustria más relevante con relación al aporte del PIB alimentario fue la elaboración de pan y tortilla con un 30.15%, productos esenciales de la canasta básica en la alimentación del pueblo de México. Finalmente, la industria alimentaria en promedio del periodo contribuye con 22.42% del producto interno bruto manufacturero y con 3.72% del nacional.

Abstract This research aimed to quantify the contribution of the Mexican food agroindustry to the national gross domestic product, as well as to calculate the average annual growth rate during a 27-year period from 1993 to 2019, which considered the last four six-year periods, and to determine the contribution to the manufacturing industry and the national economy. The methodology was documentary with the following stages: i) selection of the topic to be studied; ii) collection of information from secondary documentary sources, which was mainly from the national accounts of INEGI; iii) preparation of the research plan; iv) information organization, using the North American Industry Classification System of the National Institute of Geography and Informatics; and v) use of the statistical function, which for this case was the average annual growth rate. It was found that the food industry presented a positive trend throughout the period, with an average annual growth rate of 2.21% and with a parallelism with the manufacturing industry, which is the sector that encompasses the food industry; however, the latter presented some falls in its growth. The most relevant agroindustry in relation to the contribution of food GDP was the preparation of bread and tortilla with 30.15%, essential products of the basic basket in the diet of the people of Mexico. Finally, the food industry, on average for the period, contributes 22.42% of the manufacturing gross domestic product and 3.72% of the national product.