Resumen En el presente artículo se realiza un análisis interpretativo del significado de “democracia” desde su conceptualización por lo antiguos griegos y en la época de la Roma republicana, hasta llegar a como se percibe la democracia en la actualidad. El objetivo planteado fue analizar diferentes perspectivas sobre el concepto de democracia, desde su relación con los derechos humanos hasta su aplicación en la sociedad actual. La metodología empleada se basó en un análisis interpretativo de fuentes históricas y contemporáneas sobre democracia y derechos humanos. Los resultados resaltan la importancia de la democracia en el respeto de los derechos fundamentales, la participación ciudadana y la gobernanza democrática. Se destaca la complejidad y riqueza del concepto de democracia en diferentes contextos históricos y culturales. En la actualidad este término se relaciona con los Derechos Humanos; no presenta aspecto individual, varía desde la óptica de cada nación; Finalmente, resulta indispensable garantizar los derechos fundamentales con la finalidad de llegar al funcionamiento idóneo del Estado.

Abstract In this article, an interpretive analysis of the meaning of “democracy” is carried out from its conceptualization by the ancient Greeks and in the era of Republican Rome, until reaching how democracy is perceived today. The objective was to analyze different perspectives on the concept of democracy, from its relationship with human rights to its application in today's society. The methodology used was based on an interpretive analysis of historical and contemporary sources on democracy and human rights. The results highlight the importance of democracy in respecting fundamental rights, citizen participation and democratic governance. The complexity and richness of the concept of democracy in different historical and cultural contexts is highlighted. Currently this term is related to Human Rights; It does not present an individual aspect, it varies from the perspective of each nation; Finally, it is essential to guarantee fundamental rights in order to achieve the ideal functioning of the State.

The nature of light has always intrigued humanity. Among the texts of ancient Greeks that have survived to our days, there are frequent mentions of light and its nature. The first known book on optics is attributed to Euclid in the 3rd century BCE. The phenomenon of refraction, although known for millennia, resisted a mathematical explanation until the modern age. W. Snellius (Snell) was the first to present the correct equation that related the angles of incidence, refraction, and the speeds of light in each medium during refraction, but he did not publish his results. The publication was made by René Descartes. This result is now known as Snell-Descartes’ law or the law of refraction. Descartes treated light as a particle in his deduction. Huygens, in the 17th century, also deduced this law but treated light as a wave. These results differed in terms of the speed of light in more refractive media. The measurement of speed became possible only in the 18th century and corroborated Huygens’ result, indicating the wave nature of light. Interestingly, in 1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by treating light as a particle (quantum of light). But if light also exhibits corpuscular behavior, shouldn’t it be possible to derive Snell-Descartes’ law by treating it this way? In this work, we will demonstrate that it is possible to derive this law from the corpuscular hypothesis of light. Besides its strong didactic appeal, the work engages in an interesting discussion of the current understanding of science regarding the nature of light. humanity days rd BCE refraction millennia age W Snell (Snell incidence SnellDescartes Snell-Descartes deduction Huygens th media Interestingly 1905 quantum . light) behavior shouldnt shouldn t way appeal 190 19 1

A natureza da luz sempre intrigou a humanidade. Entre os textos dos antigos gregos que sobreviveram até nossos dias, é frequente menções sobre a luz e sua natureza. O primeiro livro conhecido sobre óptica é atribuído a Euclides no século III a.C. O fenômeno da refração, embora conhecido há milênios, resistiu a uma explicação matemática até a idade moderna. W. Snellius (Snell) foi o primeiro a apresentar a equação correta que relacionasse os ângulos de incidência, refração e velocidades da luz em cada meio em uma refração, mas não publicou seus resultados. A publicação foi feita por René Descartes. Esse resultado é conhecido hoje como lei de Snell-Descartes ou lei da refração. Descartes tratou a luz como partícula em sua dedução. Huygens, no século XVII, também deduziu essa lei, mas tratando a luz como onda. Esses resultados diferiam quanto à velocidade da luz em meios mais refringentes. A medida da velocidade só foi possível no século XIX e corroborou o resultado de Huygens indicando a natureza ondulatória da luz. O interessante é que Einstein, em 1905, explica o efeito fotoelétrico tratando a luz como partícula (quantum de energia). Mas se a luz possui também um comportamento corpuscular, não deveria ser possível obter a lei de Snell-Descartes tratando-a dessa forma? Nesse trabalho, mostraremos que é possível obter essa lei partindo da hipótese corpuscular da luz. Além do forte apelo didático, o trabalho faz uma interessante discussão sobre a história do entendimento atual da ciência sobre a natureza da luz. humanidade dias aC C a.C milênios moderna W Snell (Snell incidência SnellDescartes dedução XVII onda refringentes Einstein 1905 quantum energia. energia . energia) tratandoa forma didático 190 19 1

Abstract The aim of this work is to delve into the (extra)linguistic criteria that grammarians and scholars attributed to punctuation marks from the (alleged) origins of these signs until the Middle Ages. To this end, the most relevant contributions of Greek authors (Dionysius Thrax, Nicanor, Apollonius Dyscolus); Romans, including the Hight Empire (Quintilian) and the Low Empire (Diomedes and Donatus); and medieval, including Early Middle Ages and High Middle Ages (Saint Augustine, Isidore of Seville, Papias, Hugh of Saint Victor, John of Genoa) are reviewed. It has been noted that most theories are based on three basic types, starting from the Greeks (τελεία στιγμή, μέση στιγμή and ὑποστιγμή) and were adopted by late Latin grammarians and other later authors (distinctio, media distinctio and subdistinctio). However, the usage of criteria by which they are described (one syntactic-semantic and one phonetic-respiratory) seems to indicate that these pauses could be reduced to two.

Resumen Este trabajo pretende profundizar en los criterios (extra)lingüísticos que gramáticos y estudiosos atribuyeron a los signos de puntuación desde los (supuestos) orígenes de dichos signos hasta bien entrada la Edad Media. Para ello, se recorren las aportaciones más relevantes de autores griegos (Dionisio Tracio, Nicanor y Apolonio Díscolo); romanos, pasando por el Alto Imperio (Quintiliano) y el Bajo Imperio (Diomedes y Donato); y medievales, incluyendo la Alta y la Plena Edad Media (san Agustín, san Isidoro de Sevilla, Papías, Hugo de San Víctor y Giovanni Balbi). Se ha constatado que la mayoría de las teorías se basan en tres tipos básicos, que parten desde los griegos (τελεία στιγμή, μέση στιγμή y ὑποστιγμή) y fueron adoptados por los gramáticos latinos tardíos y otros autores posteriores (distinctio, media distinctio y subdistinctio). Sin embargo, los criterios de uso con los que se describen (uno de tipo sintáctico-semántico y otro fonético-respiratorio) parecen indicar que dichas pausas podrían reducirse a dos.

Abstract Balkan Peninsula Diaspora appeared in Kazakhstan at the end of the XIX century. Firstly, the Bulgarian nationality moved, and then Greeks moved. Among the peoples of the Balkan Peninsula, the fate of the Greeks and Bulgarians is typically common for Kazakhstan. The fact that the Balkans people collided with the land of Central Asia was comprehensively influenced by political, economic, and ideological factors. Adapted to the nature and economy of the new region, the Balkan ethnic groups have retained their identity. Today, the fourth generation of these ethnic groups lives in independent Kazakhstan as a fully functioning Diaspora of Balkan people. Problems of their resettlement and arrangement are one of the topics that have not been studied in history despite being one of the most important in migration and resettlement questions of this territory. In this research work the history of Balkan ethnic groups in Kazakhstan was analyzed on the basis of archival and scientific materials.

Resumen La diáspora de la península balcánica surge en Kazajistán a fines del siglo XIX. En primera instancia se trasladaron los búlgaros y luego los griegos. Entre los pueblos de la península de los balcanes, el destino de griegos y búlgaros es típicamente común en Kazajistán. El hecho de que el pueblo de los balcanes colindara con tierras de Asia Central estuvo altamente influenciado por factores políticos, económicos e ideológicos. Adaptados a la naturaleza y a la economía de la nueva región, los grupos étnicos balcánicos han conservado su identidad. Hoy, la cuarta generación de estos grupos étnicos vive en la República de Kazajistán como una diáspora totalmente funcional. Al respecto, problemas acerca de su reasentamiento y orden son temas que aún no han sido estudiados por la historia, a pesar de ser uno de los más importantes grupos migratorios de este territorio. En este trabajo analizamos la historia de los grupos étnicos en Kazajistán, en base a materiales de archivo y datos científicos.

RESUMEN Este artículo, ubicado en el campo de la filosofía de la educación, discute la educación profesional y tecnológica como un espacio-tiempo de formación humana. Para defender la tesis de la precedencia de la formación humana y ciudadana, el argumento se estructura en tres partes: primero, se revisita a los antiguos griegos, fundadores de la idea educativa y raíz del dualismo entre formación profesional y formación general; en segundo lugar, analiza la concepción de educación omnilateral de Marx, que critica la herencia de la educación clásica y propone superar tal dualismo uniendo enseñanza y trabajo; tercero, a partir de la idea-fuerza griega de skholé, reinterpretado por Rancière y Masschelein, piensa la educación profesional y tecnológica como espacio-tiempo de formación humana, mientras posibilita el tiempo libre que pone en suspensión la lógica desigual del mundo del trabajo. artículo espaciotiempo espacio ciudadana partes primero griegos general lugar Marx trabajo tercero ideafuerza fuerza skholé Masschelein

ABSTRACT This philosophy of education article discusses professional and technological education as a space-time in human furtherance. The argument is structured in three parts: first, it revisits the ancient Greeks, founders of the educational idea of the dualism between professional education and general education. Second, it analyzes Marx’s conception of omnilateral education, which criticizes the legacy of classical education and proposes overcoming such dualism by uniting teaching and work. Third, based on the Greek strength-idea of skholé, revisited by Rancière and Masschelein, it presents professional and technological education as a space-time of human furtherance, while enabling free time that suspends the unequal logic of the world of work. spacetime space furtherance parts first Greeks Second Marxs Marx s work Third strengthidea strength skholé Masschelein

RESUMO O presente artigo, situado no campo da filosofia da educação, tematiza a educação profissional e tecnológica enquanto espaço-tempo de formação humana. Para defender a tese da precedência da formação humana e cidadã, estrutura o argumento em três partes: na primeira, revisita os gregos antigos, fundadores da ideia educativa e raiz do dualismo entre formação profissional e formação geral; na segunda, analisa a concepção de educação omnilateral em Marx, a qual critica a herança da educação clássica e propõe a superação de tal dualismo pela união entre ensino e trabalho; e na terceira, com base na ideia-força grega da skholé, reinterpretada por Rancière e Masschelein, pensa a educação profissional e tecnológica como espaço-tempo de formação humana, enquanto possibilita o tempo livre que coloca em suspensão a lógica desigual do mundo do trabalho. artigo espaçotempo espaço cidadã partes primeira antigos geral segunda Marx trabalho terceira ideiaforça força skholé Masschelein

Resumen: En este artículo nos proponemos demostrar que para los hebreos y griegos de la Antigüedad el mundo de los muertos, en su sentido neutro (no moral), es decir como sheol o hadēs, representa una dimensión más allá de lo divino y de lo humano, inasimilable por la cristología dogmática. Sostendremos que el descensus ad inferos de Cristo, en esta perspectiva, es el dispositivo elaborado por la teología (proto)ortodoxa, ya desde los primeros siglos, para conjurar el dominio imaginal y fantasmático de los muertos.

Abstract: This article aims at demonstrating that ancient Hebrews and Greeks considered that the world of the dead -in its neutral sense (non-moral), i.e., as sheol or hadēs- represents a dimension beyond the divine or the human, a dimension the dogmatic Christology cannot possibly embrace. We will argue that descensus Christi ad inferos, from this perspective, constitutes the device the (proto)orthodox theology has construed, since the early days, to conjure up the imaginal and phantasmatic realm of the dead.

Abstract: This paper is centered on Thassos, an island situated in the Northern Aegean, settled by Greeks from Paros. We focus on the Archaic Period, more specifically on the sixth century BC, the peak of local production. Departing from the archaeological contexts through excavation reports, we analyze significant social and religious connections among votive materials associated with the Thasian black-figure pottery. These connections brought us elements that allowed us to interpret the multiculturalism imbricated within the objects, the mimicry and the innovations in the decoration of this black-figure pottery, as well as the particular demand in quantitative terms of a type of vessel called lekane, an object that was loaded with information and religious and apotropaic meaning. In addition, those same elements also showed us traits that reveal votive practices, judging by the way the pottery was exhibited, and its decorative features, which to date are only attested in Thassos. The research revealed intrinsic relationships linked to the various facets of Artemis, the protection of women in childbirth, revealed through the analysis of the objects in context.

Abstract: Based on the wide range of terms used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the slave, for decades the Hellenists will interpret this lack of precision as a characteristic of the untidy Greek conception of slavery, making it directly difficult for the same scholars to examine. modern. With the work of Detlef Lotze (1930-2018) in the middle of the last century, however, this plurality of concepts around the slave begins to be interpreted as an indication of the complexity with which slavery is conceived and applied in the Greek world, the which, finally, would consist of heterogeneous forms of subjection and not a universally defined and exercised institution. The concepts «slavery-dependence» and «slaverymerchandise», thus, acquire relevance to identify the necessary difference between a form of slavery where the slave manages the production process, and another where he participates only as a material element of it.

Resumen: A partir de la amplia gama de términos utilizados por los antiguos griegos para aludir al esclavo, durante décadas los helenistas interpretarán esa falta de precisión como un rasgo propio de la desprolija concepción griega sobre la esclavitud, dificultando directamente su examen por parte de los mismos estudiosos modernos. Con el trabajo de Detlef Lotze (1930-2018) a mediados del siglo pasado, sin embargo, esta pluralidad de conceptos en torno al esclavo empieza a interpretarse como un indicio de la complejidad con la que la esclavitud se concibe y aplica en el mundo griego, la cual, finalmente consistiría en formas heterogéneas de sujeción y no a una institución universalmente delimitada y ejercida. Los conceptos “esclavitud-dependencia” y “esclavitud-mercancía”, de este modo, adquieren relevancia para identificar la necesaria diferencia entre una forma de esclavitud donde el esclavo administra el proceso productivo, y otra donde participa únicamente como elemento material del mismo.

Abstract The study of emotions in Antiquity has burst in the last decades. In its development, the Aristotelian systematization of affections (πάθη) (“Book II” of his Rhetoric) has received special attention. In this context, it has been noticed that the emotion of ‘indignation’, as it is defined by the Stagirite (a painful feeling produced by the perception of undeserved prosperity, Rhetoric 1387a8-9) would not have been named by the Greeks as he did it (τ νεμεσᾶν). The objection is founded, above all, on the testimonies of forensic speeches (4th century BC). Our proposal incorporates the testimony of Aristophanic comedy into the discussion, since indignation has been considered by many (Cooper, Golden, Rosenbloom, among others) the typical emotion of comedy.

Resumen El estudio de las emociones en la Antigüedad ha tenido en las últimas décadas una gran eclosión. En su desarrollo, la propuesta aristotélica de los afectos (πάθη) (“Libro II” de su Retórica) ha recibido una atención especial. En ese marco, se ha observado que la emoción de la ‘indignación’, tal como la define el Estagirita (un sentimiento doloroso producido por la percepción de una inmerecida prosperidad, Retórica 1387a8-9) no habría recibido por parte de los griegos el nombre que este le asigna (τὸ νεμεσᾶν). La objeción se funda, sobre todo, en los testimonios de las oraciones forenses (s. IV a.C.). Nuestra propuesta incorpora el testimonio de la comedia aristofánica a la discusión, ya que la indignación ha sido considerada por muchos (Cooper, Golden, Rosenbloom, entre otros) la emoción típica de la comedia.

Resumo Encenada durante a guerra do Peloponeso, a tragédia Andrômaca de Eurípides permite a discussão acerca das relações de poder estabelecidas entre esposa legítima e concubina, mulheres e homens e também espartanas e troianas. Neste artigo, propomos estudar essas relações de poder feminino na Atenas clássica. A disputa de poder entre Hermíone e Andrômaca tem como base o casamento e a condição de esposa legítima, a maternidade e os espaços de atuação das mulheres gregas. Há ainda um embate de poder entre a cultura dos gregos e a dos não gregos, nos remetendo às discussões acerca do conceito de etnicidade.

Abstract Staged during the Peloponnesian War, Euripides' tragedy "Andromache" fosters debate on power relations established between legitimate wife and concubine, women and men, and also Spartan and Trojan women. The purpose of this article is to study these relations of feminine power in classical Athens. The power struggle between Hermíone and Andromache is based on marriage and the status of legitimate wife, motherhood and the areas of activity of Greek women. There is also a conflict of power between the culture of the Greeks and that of the non-Greeks, referring to discussions about the concept of ethnicity.

The South African Academy of Science and Arts recently commemorated its 110th year of existence and it is an appropriate time to reflect on the value of academic labour. Academic labour is an important aspect of human culture. Through academic labour, mankind's purest dreams and ideals are realised. Literacy, study, learning and research contribute to the highest and refined levels of civilisation that Western society can offer. It makes the world a better place, with humanity, prosperity, alleviation of poverty and human dignity. Through academic work, mankind has already reached unparalleled levels of development. This article examines the value of academic activities and the motivation of academia. The rewards of academic labour range from the utilitarian, solving problems and to gain useful knowledge, to the spiritual. The psychological remuneration of academic effort is also positive. Academia has the privilege each day serving a higher calling. This is a wonderful motivation, but also a very important responsibility. This article concludes emphasising that academic standards should never be compromised. The author is an economist and sees the world from that perspective. That is the reason why the title highlights value. This article emphasises that academia constitutes a valuable product and that knowledge has intrinsic value of its own, more valuable than gold and coral. People desire to learn more, and much is still hidden and wonderful and is essential for one's happiness. Knowledge and skills are useful, but universities should also promote basic research without a specific practical objective, just for the sake of enjoyment. A university is also a knowledge factory that generates new knowledge. Its objective is to discover new things. As it is an enterprise it should be managed in a financially sustainable fashion. Universities contribute to the National Development Plan. Their products and services lead to new technological, social, commercial and other innovations that benefit the whole society, but it should be better financed and marketed. Various studies in Britain found that university training and knowledge acquired lead to lower unemployment, higher skills, a more productive, innovative, flexible and entrepreneurial workforce, and also increase the productivity of co-workers. This leads to higher economic growth, more tax income to the state, a smaller burden on public finances, better health, more informed civic participation and less crime. Several studies elsewhere, such as in America and New Zealand, concur. Australian studies highlighted that universities enhance a country's prosperity, build human and social capital, and drive technological progress and economies. It builds society through community service, helps building a "knowledge economy" and promotes future economic prosperity through international exchange. Research reveals a direct relationship between education and productivity, competitiveness, profits and growing income and job creation. During the past decades, people's wellbeing has improved continually. Human development, income, production, life expectancy, adult literacy, and the number of children at school rose gradually. There is a direct link between economic development and education and research. People all over the world are developing and their living standards are improving. The main objective of the search for knowledge is to obtain wisdom. To know the correct steps beforehand is valuable and better than to act on intuition, feelings or beliefs. Most of academia have enquiring minds, are curious about the world and have the wonderful opportunity to search for knowledge, insight and wisdom. It provides a sense of security and psychological peace. It builds high self-esteem and motivates one to learn and use that knowledge. Socrates said that wonder is the beginning of wisdom. Academic effort leads to the discovery of wonder, complexity and beauty, which leads to curiosity about the world and a deeper meaning of it all. What makes the research investigation such an enjoyable experience is the wonder it reveals and the fascination about the discoveries it brings about. Science enables a researcher to enjoy the amassing discoveries that academic effort reveals. There is also an immense satisfaction when things come together and begin to make sense. There is that feeling of pure joy when something new is discovered, which leads to more wonder and more research. Academic effort and particularly research should, in the first instance, be conducted purely for the enjoyment it brings. Enjoyment enables people to become more innovative and leads to more discoveries. Academic freedom that allows academia to conduct research that interests them leads to better products. The authorities' current policies in guiding research by means of targeted financing do, however, restrict academic freedom. Research should generate knowledge that is generic in the sense that it can apply to many areas and could stand the test of time. It is never known where knowledge would be needed. To name a few examples: The ancient Greeks developed Euclidean geometry, which is still taught to high school and engineering students. Boole developed Boolean algebra in 1847 long before it was used to design digital electronics and computers. Carothers accepted an appointment on condition to focus only on academic research without practical value, but still discovered nylon. Feynman developed the mathematics behind a wobbling pizza and later used it in developing quantum electrodynamics, eventually winning the Nobel Prize. Science should still be thorough even if research is enjoyable. High academic and research principles should never be compromised. The aim is to discover the truth. Academic labour should follow strict logical order. Science must be derived and described logically and in a mathematically deductive way or derive reliable knowledge inductively, but methodically. The application of mathematics to science is the most powerful instrument in understanding the world. Even where mathematics is not directly applied, the scientific method should be. Academia strives towards lofty ideals in their labour. They laugh, sing, make poetry and dream, study plants, trees, animals and society, confront challenges, make new discoveries, develop technology and place humans on the moon and aim for Mars. Through it all, academic labour and literacy are utilised to fulfil man's cultural assignment to make the world a better place. The academy is truly a very special calling.

Die Suid-Afrikaanse Akademie vir Wetenskap en Kuns het sopas sy 110de bestaansjaar herdenk en dit is die aangewese tyd om te reflekteer op die waarde van akademiese arbeid. Die artikel ondersoek die hoë waarde van akademiese arbeid en die motiewe van akademici. Akademici ervaar geleerdheid, onderrig en navorsing as iets verhewe. Dis nie slegs hul dagtaak nie, maar dien as 'n besondere roeping. Vervolgens word die universiteit as 'n onderneming beskou waarna gelet word op die praktiese waarde van die akademie en die mate wat dit met die ontwikkeling van die mensdom, veral op ekonomiese gebied, saamhang. Dit doen ook 'n beroep op akademici om meer algemene, basiese en generiese navorsing, sonder noodwendig 'n besondere doel, te onderneem. Nuttelose navorsing, sonder 'n spesifieke praktiese doel, word as van die waardevolste voorgehou. Die artikel sluit af deur te beklemtoon dat navorsing eerstens ter wille van die intrinsieke waarde, genot en bevrediging wat dit bring moet plaasvind, maar daar word beklemtoon dat hoë akademiese standaarde steeds te alle tye moet geld.

RESUMEN ¿Es real el conocimiento/pensamiento (λόγος) que tenemos sobre las cosas (τὰ ὄντα) o son solo apariencias? En este artículo se expondrá el problema de la realidad (entendida como verdad) en los filósofos antiguos como una correspondencia entre el τὸ ὄν (lo que es/está) y el λόγος (lo dicho-pensado) como pregunta clave en la concepción de la metafísica griega. A partir de esto se explicará por qué en los griegos surge la necesidad de plantear la φύσις (naturaleza) como completa (τὸ ὅλον) y de emprender una búsqueda de una teoría inmanentista a partir de un análisis lógico de argumentos de diversos filósofos antiguos (desde Parménides hasta Sexto Empírico). Finalmente, se mostrará cómo el escepticismo derriba esta correspondencia y logra plantear límites a la razón para acceder a la verdad, lo cual permitió plantear la necesidad de realizar un paso de una metafísica inmanente a una trascendente.

ABSTRACT Could the knowledge/thought (λόγος) we have about the things (τὰ ὄντα) that surround us be real, or is it only an appearance? In this article, the problem of reality (understood as truth) for ancient philosophers will be addressed as a correspondence between τὸ ὄν (what things are) and λόγος (what is said/thought) as a key element in the conception of Greek metaphysics. Using this as a starting point, it will be explored why the Greeks need to set out φύσις (nature) as a whole (τὸ ὅλον) and to begin the search of an immanence theory from a logical analysis of the argument of diverse ancient philosophers (from Parmenides to Sextus Empiricus). Finally, it will also be shown how skepticism tears down this correspondence and is even able to establish boundaries to reason in order to access the truth. This allowed to expose the necessity to make a transition from an immanent metaphysics to a transcendent one.

Abstract: In this article we focus on the character of the translator-interpreter (ἑρμηνεύς) as recorded by Herodotus and Xenophon, in order to study the different types of oral translations achieved between Greeks and barbarians in Ancient East. Although our analysis is limited to these two sources, we think in our work are for the first time examined the ways in which such activity was practiced. Here we consider how testimonies of Herodotus and Xenophon have contributed to define the main lines and types of oral translations used by the interpreters, according to the situations in which their services were required.

Resumen: Este artículo centra su atención en la figura del traductor-intérprete (ἑρμηνεύς), atestiguada por Heródoto y Jenofonte, a fin de introducir al estudio de los posibles tipos de traducción oral que se llevaban a cabo entre griegos y bárbaros en el antiguo Oriente. Si bien el presente análisis se limita a estos dos autores como fuentes, es éste el primer trabajo que examina particularmente las formas en que se practicaba la actividad interpretativa. Gracias al enfoque con el que se abordan los testimonios de Heródoto y Jenofonte, también ha sido posible determinar las características y el tipo de traducción oral empleado por los intérpretes, según las situaciones en que fueran requeridos sus servicios para ayudar a establecer la comunicación entre los griegos y el mundo que conocían.

ABSTRACT This article proposes a reflection on the cultural and religious fundamentals of the fortuitous case: The legal category called to discipline, from the Roman Law, the consequences (patrimonial, contractual and criminal) of the facts unrelated to the negligence, fault or deceit of the agent, as they are, for example, all events related to threats of natural origin (earthquakes, floods, etc.). In the proposed text it will be shown that the fortuitous case was shaped by the divine and supernatural beliefs of the ancient Greeks and Romans; that this trait, codified during Roman pagan times by the Roman jurist Gayo (A.D. II century), was conserved during the first Christian period, as shown by the Corpus Iuris Civilis of Justinian (A.D. Century VI), because the pagan cosmovision related to disasters was received by the Holy Scriptures; and that for its conformity with the biblical dictation (and consistent cosmology), this legal category, called to discipline the consequences of disasters related to threats of natural origin, was adopted by the medieval society in general, and by Hispanics in particular, as some norms of the Espéculo and the Siete Partidas demonstrate.

RESUMEN Este artículo propone una reflexión respecto de los fundamentos culturales y religiosos del caso fortuito, la categoría jurídica llamada a disciplinar, desde el derecho romano, las consecuencias (patrimoniales, contractuales y penales) de los hechos ajenos a la negligencia, culpa o dolo del agente, como son, por ejemplo, todos los acontecimientos relacionados con amenazas de origen natural (terremotos, inundaciones, etcétera). En el texto propuesto se demostrará que el caso fortuito se plasmó a partir de las creencias divinas y sobrenaturales de los antiguos griegos y romanos; que este rasgo, codificado durante la época romana pagana por el jurista romano Gayo (siglo II d. C.), se conservó durante el primer periodo cristiano, como demuestra el Corpus Iuris Civilis de Justiniano (siglo VI d. C.), porque la cosmovisión pagana relativa a los desastres se plasmó en las Sagradas Escrituras; y que por su conformidad con el dictado bíblico (y consecuente cosmología), esta categoría jurídica, llamada a disciplinar las consecuencias de los desastres relacionados con amenazas de origen natural, fue adoptada por la sociedad medieval en general, y por la hispánica en particular, como demuestran algunas normas del Espéculo y de las Siete Partidas.

Abstract: In this essay on ancient architectural technologies, I propose to challenge the largely conventional idea of the transcendent origins of philosophy, that philosophy dawned only when the mind turned inside, away from the world grasped by the body and senses. By focusing on one premier episode in the history of western thinking - the emergence of Greek philosophical thought in the cosmic architecture of Anaximander of Miletus - I am arguing that the abstract, speculative, rationalising thinking characteristic of philosophy, is indeed rooted in practical activities, and emerges by means of them rather than in repudiation of them. The spirit of rational inquiry emerged from several factors but the contributing role of monumental architecture and building technologies has been vastly under-appreciated. In the process of figuring out how to build on an enormous scale that the eastern Greeks had never before tried, the architects discovered and revealed nature’s order in their thaumata, the very experience with which Aristotle claims that philosophy begins. Ancient architecture and building technologies were on display for decades with monumental temple building. In front of Anaximander and his community, a new vision of nature spawned that, surprisingly, humans could grasp and command. The building of these thaumata, these objects of wonder, offered proof of the human capacity to control nature, and opened a new vision of our human rational capacity to understand the world and our place in it.