Resumen Nuestra propuesta para el análisis de la variación pragmática en traducción audiovisual está centrada en la descripción de seis categorías de elementos léxicos conversacionales: (a) las formas nominales de tratamiento; (b) los marcadores discursivos; (c) la intensificación y (d) la atenuación de actos directivos y expresivos; (e) los diminutivos y (f) el léxico coloquial, que comprende las palabras tabús. Proponemos un modelo de análisis de seis estrategias conversacionales claves para la variación pragmática, que son problemas de traducción audiovisual en diálogos. El foco de este trabajo está en el léxico coloquial y en las palabras tabús, y en cómo revelan especificidades culturales. La propuesta se estructura a partir del análisis de seis versiones dobladas de la animación Inside Out (2015), realizadas en tres lenguas (portugués, español y francés) más la versión fuente en inglés americano. Debido a la especificidad de la película, fuertemente basada en la teoría de las emociones de Ekman, los protagonistas asumen comportamientos prototípicos relacionados a las categorías de las llamadas emociones de base. Este encuadre teórico conlleva a que pocos personajes (Anger y Disgust) produzcan la mayoría de las palabras tabús (o sus formas eufemísticas) observables en este producto audiovisual que además está dirigido para una clasificación de audiencia libre. Las producciones de palabras tabús son más frecuentes en deportes, en los que el comportamiento agresivo se puede ver como positivo. Además, observamos referencias en metalenguaje a formas insultantes. A partir de los ejemplos en paralelo de estas siete versiones de doblaje para la misma película, demostramos cómo estos elementos léxicos conversacionales pueden revelar especificidades pragmáticas y culturales. (a tratamiento b (b discursivos c (c d (d expresivos e (e f (f diálogos culturales 2015, 2015 , (2015) portugués, portugués (portugués francés americano película Ekman base Anger Disgust o eufemísticas libre deportes positivo Además insultantes 201 (2015 20 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Abstract Our proposal for the analysis of pragmatic variation in audiovisual translation focuses on the description of six categories of conversational lexical elements: (a) nominal terms of address; (b) discourse markers; (c) intensifiers; (d) mitigators of directive and expressive acts; (e) diminutives; and (f) colloquial language, which includes taboo words. We propose an analysis model based on these six conversational strategies that cue for pragmatic variation and constitute problems for the audiovisual translation of dialogues. This work deals specifically with colloquial lexicon and taboo words and how they reveal cultural specificities. The proposal is based on analyzing six dubbed versions of the animation Inside Out (2015), produced in three languages (Portuguese, Spanish, and French), plus the American English source. Due to the film's theme, based on Ekman's theory of emotions, the protagonists assume prototypical behaviors related to the categories of so-called base emotions. This theoretical foundation means that a few characters (Anger and Disgust) produce most of the taboo words (or their euphemistic forms) observable in this audiovisual product. The film also targets a general audience classification, leading to further restrictions. Productions of taboo words are more frequent in sports, where aggressive behavior may be seen as positive. In addition, metalinguistics formulae referred to derogatory language. Using parallel examples of these seven dubbed versions for the same film, we demonstrate how these conversational lexical items can reveal pragmatic and cultural specificities. elements (a address b (b markers c (c intensifiers d (d acts e (e diminutives f (f language dialogues specificities 2015, 2015 , (2015) Portuguese, Portuguese (Portuguese Spanish French, French French) source films s theme Ekmans Ekman emotions socalled so called Anger Disgust or forms product classification restrictions sports positive addition 201 (2015 20 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Resumo O objetivo do estudo é analisar os nomes usados para designar o racismo no México, bem como a relação de seu léxico com fenômenos como o etnicismo, a discriminação e o classismo. A estrutura teórica é baseada em pesquisas sobre o racismo atual (Castellano, 2000; Gall, 2014, 2004), estudos lexicológicos (Atunes, 2012; Lara, 2006) e estudos discursivos (Hall, 1992). Para alcançar o objetivo, trabalhamos com um corpo de textos de opinião composto de 109 comentários escritos anonimamente em resposta a quatro textos desencadeantes que perguntam se existe ou não racismo no México e um texto mediador que promove a participação dos leitores de um jornal mexicano on-line. Os dados são estudados em duas fases: primeiro, através de uma análise de conteúdo (Bardin, 2002) trabalhamos no nível léxico dos textos identificando os temas e organizando-os por categorias semânticas; segundo, eles são analisados quantitativamente usando o aplicativo AntConc.exe (Anthony, 2022). Os resultados mostram as denominações relativas ao racismo, suas associações semânticas mais frequentes e a interseccionalidade que pode ser observada na vida cotidiana.

Abstract The purpose of this study is to analyse the names with which racism is called in Mexico; as well as the relationship of its lexicon with phenomena such as ethnicism, discrimination and classism. The theoretical framework is built from research on current racism (Castellano, 2000; Gall, 2014, 2004), lexicological (Atunes, 2012; Lara, 2006) and discursive studies (Hall, 1992). To achieve the objective, we work with a corpus of opinion texts composed of 109 comments written anonymously in response to four trigger texts asking whether or not racism exists in Mexico and a mediating text that promoted the participation of readers of a Mexican online newspaper. The data are studied in two phases: first, through a content analysis (Bardin, 2002) we work on the lexical level of the texts by identifying the topics and organizing them by semantic categories; second, they are analysed quantitatively using the AntConc.exe application (Anthony, 2022). The results show the denominations regarding racism, their most frequent semantic associations and the intersectionality that can be observed in everyday life.

Resumen El propósito del estudio es analizar los nombres con los que se designa al racismo en México; así como la relación de su léxico con fenómenos como el etnicismo, la discriminación y el clasismo. El marco teórico se construye a partir de investigaciones sobre el racismo actual (Castellano, 2000; Gall, 2014, 2004), estudios lexicológicos (Atunes, 2012; Lara, 2006) y discursivos (Hall, 1992). Para lograr el objetivo se trabaja con un corpus de textos de opinión integrado por 109 comentarios escritos de manera anónima en respuesta a cuatro textos disparadores en los que se preguntaba si el racismo existe o no en México y un texto mediador que promovía la participación de los lectores de un periódico mexicano Online. Los datos se estudian en dos fases: inicialmente, mediante un análisis de contenido (Bardin, 2002) se trabaja en el nivel léxico de los textos identificando los temas y organizándose por categorías semánticas; segundo, los textos se analizan cuantitativamente mediante la aplicación AntConc.exe (Anthony, 2022). Los resultados muestran las denominaciones respecto al racismo, sus asociaciones semánticas más frecuentes y la interseccionalidad que puede ser observada en la cotidianeidad.

Resumo: Introdução: A vivência da maternidade para mulheres primíparas é um momento de passagem e diz respeito a mudanças físicas e emocionais. Essa experiência precisa ser acolhida pelas equipes de saúde desde a Atenção Primária até a média e alta complexidade. Sendo assim, no pré-natal de risco habitual, o enfermeiro generalista e o enfermeiro obstetra devem estar nas equipes de cuidados mantendo a qualidade da assistência ao pré- natal, parto e puerpério. A atenção a mulher de forma humanizada pode contribuir para a vivência de um puerpério mais satisfatório. Objetivos: reconhecer as percepções de puérperas nas ações de cuidado recebidas por enfermeiros em um Hospital de Ensino. Métodos: estudo qualitativo, exploratório, realizado em um Hospital de Ensino Federal, vinculado a uma Universidade Pública. Compôs o grupo desse estudo 13 mulheres primíparas, que pariram seus filhos através de parto normal ou de cirurgia cesariana no segundo semestre de 2021. Foi realizada entrevista por plataforma Google Meet entre o 30º e 45º dia de pós-parto com a seguinte indagação: Conte para mim o que representa ser mulher e puérpera pela primeira vez? A Análise foi realizada pelo software Iramuteq (Interface R pous les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaries - Versão alpha 2) Resultados: o corpus das entrevistas gerou 308 Unidades de Contexto Elementar (UCE). A Classificação Hierárquica Descendente (CHD) reteve 254 UCE, com aproveitamento de 82,47% e cinco classes, o léxico mais frequente foi enfermeiro (a), com frequência de 23 citações nos segmentos dos textos. Conclusões: Foi possível reconhecer o enfermeiro, como profissional promotor de práticas humanizadas na assistência ao parto, pelo relato das participantes do acolhimento recebido no momento do parto e puerpério imediato.

Abstract: Introduction: The experience of motherhood for primiparous women is a moment of passage and concerns physical and emotional changes. This experience needs to be welcomed by health teams from primary care to medium and high complexity. Therefore, in the usual risk prenatal care, the generalist nurse and the obstetrician nurse must be in the care teams, maintaining the quality of prenatal, childbirth and postpartum care. The attention to women in a humanized way can contribute to the experience of a more satisfactory postpartum period. Objectives: to recognize the perceptions of puerperal women in the care actions given by nurses in a School Hospital. Methods: qualitative, exploratory study, carried out in a Federal School Hospital, linked to a public university. The group in this study was composed of 13 primiparous women, who gave birth to their children through normal delivery or cesarean section in the second half of 2021. An interview was carried out using the Google Meet platform between the 30th and 45th day postpartum with the following question: What does it mean to me to be a woman and a puerperal for the first time? The analysis was performed using the Iramuteq software (Interface R pous les Analyses Multidimensionnelles de Textes et de Questionnaires - Version 0.7 alpha 2) Results: the corpus of the 13 interviews generated 308 Elementary Context Units (ECU). The Descending Hierarchical Classification (CHD) retained 254 UCE, with an 82.47% success rate and five classes; the most frequent lexicon was nurse (a), with a frequency of 23 citations in the text segments. Conclusions: it was possible to recognize the nurse as a professional promoter of humanized practices in childbirth care, by the participants' reports about the reception received at the time of childbirth and the immediate postpartum period.

Resumo: Em alguns processos gerenciais a análise de conteúdo dos discursos dos sujeitos pode ajudar a compreender a subjetividade envolvida na gestão dos serviços de saúde como no caso dos fluxos assistenciais. Objetivo: Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi discutir sobre o uso da análise de conteúdo frequencial lexical para analisar comparativamente a compreensão de um fluxo assistencial para a referência de usuários com câncer bucal. Método: O estudo se localizou no município de Arcoverde, Pernambuco, Brasil. Este é um município de médio porte e contém uma rede de serviços públicos de saúde bucal composta por 19 equipes de cirurgiões-dentistas (CDs) e auxiliares que encaminham pacientes com suspeitas de câncer bucal. Realizou-se entrevista semiestruturada com quatro sujeitos (dois CDs e dois gerentes) para identificar a ‘racionalidade’ (gerencial ou clínica) mais frequente no discurso de ambos sobre o fluxo com intuito de comparação. Para fins analíticos foi usada a análise de conteúdo de Bauer, do tipo frequencial e cuja unidade textual de análise foi o léxico dos discursos dos quatro sujeitos entrevistados sobre o fluxo assistencial. Resultados: A categoria ‘Fluxo Assistencial’ para os CDs foi maior (50%) do que nos Gerentes (47,1%). Os gerentes dominaram mais o conteúdo sobre Atenção Básica do que os CDs clínicos o que pode ser visto na comparação CDs (6,1%) e Gerentes (29,4%). Conclusões: Gerentes e CDs compreendem a referência dos usuários, porém os CDs não estão totalmente seguros dos casos. Os gerentes demonstram uma maior segurança quanto os seus discursos, porém demonstraram resquícios do modelo biomédico. A análise de conteúdo frequencial lexical destes discursos permitiu essa comparação com maior precisão.

Abstract: In some management processes, the content analysis of the subjects' speeches can help to understand the subjectivity involved in the management of health services as in the case of pathways. Objective: Thus, the objective of this study was to discuss the use of lexical frequency content analysis to comparatively analyze the understanding of a care flow for referral of users with oral cancer. Method: The study was located at municipality of Arcoverde, Pernambuco, Brazil. This is a medium-sized town and contains a network of public oral health services made up of 19 teams of dentists and assistants who refer patients with suspected oral cancer. A semi-structured interview was carried out with four subjects (two DCs and two managers) to identify the 'rationality' (managerial or clinical) most frequent in the discourse of both about the flow with a lot of comparison. Bauer's content, of the frequency type and whose textual unit of analysis was the lexicon of the speeches of the four subjects interviewed about the care flow (pathway). Results: The ‘Pathway’ category for DCs was higher (50%) than for Managers (47.1%). Managers dominate the content on Primary Care more than clinical CDs, which can be seen in the comparison between dentists (6.1%) and Managers (29.4%). Conclusions: Managers and dentists understand the users' reference, but the CDs are not entirely sure of the cases. Managers are more confident about their speeches, but they are remnants of the biomedical model. The analysis of the lexical frequency content of these speeches allowed this comparison with greater precision.

Abstract We present results from the analysis of data from 104 children with ages ranging from 16 to 30 months, living in Lima, Peru. The data was collected using a preliminary version of the MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI), Form II, adapted to Peruvian Spanish. The CDIs are parental reports that assess language through the presentation of a series of items to the parents, mainly in the form of a checklist. We aimed to (1) describe the composition of Peruvian children's productive lexicon at this age, (2) identify whether nouns were the most frequent class in their vocabulary, and also the class which increased the most with age, as is the case in Italian (Caselli et al., 1995; D'Odorico y Fasolo, 2007) and Mexican Spanish (Jackson-Maldonado et al., 1993); and (3) assess whether vocabulary size explained the level of grammatical development as in Peninsular and Mexican Spanish (Mariscal & Gallego, 2012; Thal, Jackson-Maldonado & Acosta, 2000). In order to do so, we analyzed the following data: age; maternal education level (as an indicator of socioeconomic status); vocabulary (represented by a list of more than 500 words that parents recognized as produced or not by their children); the mean length of the three longest utterances produced by the child as reported by parents; and sentence complexity, a measure of the level of structures produced by the child based on the parent’s report. To achieve the first and second goals, words in the vocabulary list were classified according to grammatical class. Then, the percentage of production of each class of words was calculated, as well as the correlation between this percentage and age. Children’s vocabulary was composed mainly of nouns, which represented 57 % of the production, followed by predicates (verbs and adjectives) and function words (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, conjunctions and connectives). Noun was the class of words that increased the most with age, showing the highest correlation with such variable (r = .72). Correlations between other types of words and age varied: it was also high for adjectives; but moderate for some classes and low for others. This showed that each type of word increased at different rates. Regarding the third goal, to assess the relationship between vocabulary size and level of grammatical development, two regression analyses were conducted to predict the variables mean-length-of-the-three-longest-utterances and sentence-complexity. For both analyses, age and maternal education level were entered in the first step, in order to control for their effect; and vocabulary was entered in the second step. Both models accounted for substantial amounts of variance and showed an important effect on vocabulary. The model with the mean-length-of-the-three-longest-utterances as the dependent variable accounted for 56 % of the variance. The first step explained 37 % of the variance (due to the contribution of both age and maternal education level), and the second step explained an additional 20 %. The model with sentence-complexity accounted for a higher percentage of the variance, 75 %. The first step explained 38 % of the variance, exclusively due to age; while the second step explained an additional 37 %. These results suggest a strong relationship between vocabulary and grammar. Further research is needed to confirm these results with direct measures of child production and more representative samples of children acquiring Peruvian Spanish, including speakers of dialects of other parts of the country. However, these results, preliminary as they are, shed light on the composition of vocabulary and its relationship with grammar in a variety of Spanish scarcely studied during early stages of development.

Resumen Se examinaron datos provenientes de la evaluación del lenguaje de 104 niños con edades entre 16 y 30 meses residentes en Lima con una versión preliminar de la adaptación de la Forma II de los reportes parentales MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories (CDI) al español del Perú. Se analizó el léxico productivo a partir de la lista de palabras del reporte y se realizaron análisis de regresión para evaluar si el nivel de vocabulario contribuía a predecir el desarrollo gramatical de los niños, empleando como variables de control la edad del niño y el nivel de escolarización materna (como indicador del nivel socioeconómico) y como variables dependientes la longitud media de los tres enunciados más largos (LME3) y la complejidad morfosintáctica (CM), obtenidas con el CDI. Los sustantivos fueron la clase de palabras más frecuente y que más aumentó con la edad, como en el italiano (Caselli et al., 1995; D'Odorico y Fasolo, 2007) y el español mexicano (Jackson-Maldonado et al., 1993). Además, el nivel de vocabulario predijo el nivel de desarrollo gramatical, como en el español peninsular (Mariscal y Gallego, 2012) y en el mexicano (Thal, Jackson-Maldonado y Acosta, 2000): una vez controlados los efectos de la edad y la escolarización materna, el vocabulario explicó el 20 % de la variabilidad de la LME3 y el 37 % de la variabilidad de la CM. Este estudio ofrece información sobre el desarrollo temprano del vocabulario y la gramática en el español del Perú, una etapa escasamente estudiada en esta variedad.

Masculinity (Benwell 2004; Connell 2016; Connell & Messerschmidt 2005; Kiesling 1996; Messerschmidt 2019), including Afrikaner masculinity (Du Pisani 2001, 2004, 2013; Swart 1998) has been thoroughly researched across the social sciences. Male identity, as it manifests itself in the South African zef subculture, has also come under investigation (Du Preez 2011; Krueger 2012), however, the role of language use in the creation ofsuch a zef identity has not yet been researched. This article investigates how protest masculinity is projected and maintained on the WatKykJy?-blog, a satiric online environment, through language use, and more pointedly, the use of taboo words. This projected masculinity also relates closely to what is perceived as important in the identity of a zef male, which in itself is a reaction to traditional Afrikaner identity and the negative associations it acquired in the post-apartheid years. The WKJ?-corpus is used to conduct the analysis. The corpus consists of 1,4 million words and has been divided into one-year periods, starting at the year 2000 and ending in 2017. A total of 50 texts have been selected randomly and analysed by hand in order to find and expand the taboo domains set out by Stapleton (2010) and van Huyssteen (1996). Apart from the scatological, blasphemous and sexual domains identified in previous research, two more domains (weather and plant domains) have been identified from the corpus. The weather domain is mainly employed to refer to violent behaviour, although it is occasionally used to express surprise. The plant domain is more frequently associated with the use of sexual metaphors. The analysis indicates that WKJ?-readers and -authors frequently use taboo language on the blog. A total of 29 389 taboo words are identified, which translates into a relative frequency of 20 taboo words per 1 000 words. Individual lexical items with the highestfrequency are fok 'fuck' (1709) and its derived form fokken 'fucking' (5631), as well as kak 'shit' (3162), poes 'pussy'(1249) andmoerse 'huge'(literally 'mothers') (1128). The semantic domain that is the most productive taboo domain is the sexual domain, where taboo words with a strong sexual connotation are used quite liberally, alongside words that are metaphorically invoked to convey sexual meanings as well, such as names of animals, e.g. haas 'hare', teef 'bitch', kat 'cat', and goose for females and slang 'snake', bastard or voël 'bird'for males. Women and/or their genitals are also portrayed as edible objects, such as vy 'fig', cherry or koek 'cake', while men are represented as the active eaters thereof. Sexual acts are metaphorically represented as if they inflict pain on women, e.g. brand 'burn', or saag 'saw'. The second most frequent domain is the scatological, where euphemisms and dysphemisms are encountered, such as the euphemism modderotter uitrol (literally "rolling out the mud beaver") for bowel movement, and the dysphemism kakhuis (literally "shit house") for toilet. The third domain of taboo words draws on weather, especially stormy weather, and is often used to refer to people (die dom donner, "the stupid thunder") or to fighting (ek fokken bliksem julle almal "Ifucking thunder (verb) you all"). These words have moderate taboo value in Afrikaans, but form a template for extension to sexual terms with a meaning in the fighting domain, with much higher taboo value, such as voordat ek iemand gaan poes "before I go and pussy (verb) somebody". The fourth domain, the final one with non-negligible frequency, is the domain of blasphemous word use, including the plain forms Jesus and Here 'Lord', but also euphemistic spelling variants such as Jissis 'Jesus' and Jirre 'Lord', which are typically employed as interjections at clause boundaries. Taboo language is used purposefully and deliberately to undermine the puritan values that are part of the traditional hegemonic Afrikaner masculinity, and also expose the duplicity and contradictions thereof. The protest masculinity that is offered instead emphasises physicality, but shares the homophobic and hierarchical gender role components of hegemonic masculinity. The male participants on the website are constructing and projecting a zef identity, for the purpose of creating a post-apartheid identity that denounces any political alliances but rejects the hegemonic masculinity of the traditional Afrikaner male associated with the apartheid era. Yet, the persistent use of irony makes it ambiguous whether the alternative zef masculinity is really held up as new model.

Die rol wat taal speel in die konstruksie van Afrikanermanlikheid en zefidentiteit is nog nie voorheen as selfstandige tema ondersoek nie. In hierdie artikel is die doel om te bepaal hoe manlikheid binne 'n zefidentiteit op die blog geskep en geprojekteer word, deur die gebruik van taboetaal. Zefidentiteit is 'n vorm van protesterende manlikheid wat sigself stel teenoor die hegemoniese Afrikanermanlikheid (Du Pisani 2001), wat deur puriteinse moraliteit en openbare en ekonomiese mag gekenmerk word. Die WKJ?-korpus is gebruik vir die analise. Die korpus bestaan uit ongeveer 1,4 miljoen woorde. Vir hierdie analise is die data van die eerste inskrywings in 2000 tot en met 2017 gebruik. 'n Totaal van 50 tekste (ongeveer 30 000 woorde) is met die hand geselekteer en geanaliseer om verdere moontlike taboedomeine te identifiseer. Buiten die drie hoofdomeine wat uit vorige navorsing geïdentifiseer is, is daar nog twee domeine uit die korpus onttrek, naamlik die weerdomein en plantdomein. Die analise het getoon dat WKJ?-lesers en -bydraers doelbewus taboetaal op die blog gebruik om preutse lesers te skok en aanvaarbare sosiale norme te oortree. Hierdeur word die protesterende manlikheid via 'n zefidentiteit voorgehou, om die puriteinse waardes van die hegemoniese Afrikanermanlikheid op ironiese, en dikwels dubbelsinnige, wyse te opponeer maar ook te ontmasker.

ABSTRACT Objective: to analyze, from publications on the Federal Nursing Council website, the lexicon related to the theme of “Fighting the infodemic during the Covid-19 pandemic”. Method: a qualitative research of the documentary type, whose primary sources were reports and news published on the Federal Nursing Council website during the 2020 Nursing Week. Data was processed in the IRAMUTEQ® software. By means of the Descending Hierarchical Classification, the most frequent lexicon of the class that deals with the investigated theme was identified and it was processed from the word cloud. Result: the most frequent term identified was “desinformação” (“disinformation”). Conclusion: excess of information during the pandemic has caused disinformation, since many of the contents that circulate on social networks are inaccurate or false data, which hinders access to the legitimate information that the population and health professionals need at the current moment of the pandemic.

RESUMEN: Objetivo: a partir de publicaciones en el sitio web del Consejo Federal de Enfermería, analizar el léxico relacionado con la temática de la “Lucha contra la infodemia durante la pandemia del Covid-19”. Método: investigación cualitativa del tipo documental, cuyas fuentes primarias fueron reportajes y noticias divulgadas en el sitio web del Consejo Federal de Enfermería durante la Semana de la Enfermería de 2020. Los datos se procesaron en el software IRAMUTEQ®. Por medio de la Clasificación Jerárquica Descendente, se identificó el léxico más frecuente de la clase que trata la temática investigada, y dicho léxico se procesó a partir de una nube de palabras. Resultado: el término que se identificó con más frecuencia fue “desinformação” (“desinformación”). Conclusión: el exceso de información durante la pandemia ha causado desinformación, puesto que muchos de los contenidos que circulan en las redes sociales son datos imprecisos o falsos, que dificultan el acceso a las informaciones legítimas que precisan tanto la población como los profesionales de la salud en el momento actual de la pandemia.

RESUMO Objetivo: analisar, a partir de publicações do site do Conselho Federal de Enfermagem, os léxicos que mantêm relação com a temática “Combate à infodemia durante a pandemia da Covid-19”. Método: pesquisa qualitativa do tipo documental, cujas fontes primárias foram reportagens e notícias divulgadas no site do Conselho Federal de Enfermagem durante a Semana de Enfermagem de 2020. Os dados foram processados pelo software IRAMUTEQ®. Por meio da Classificação Hierárquica Descendente, identificou-se o léxico mais frequente da classe que trata a temática investigada e este foi processado a partir da nuvem de palavras. Resultado: o léxico mais frequente identificado foi “desinformação”. Conclusão: o excesso de informação durante a pandemia tem causado desinformação, já que muitos dos conteúdos que circulam pelas redes sociais são dados imprecisos ou falsos, que dificultam o acesso às informações legítimas que a população e os profissionais de saúde precisam no atual momento da pandemia.

Resumen: El objetivo de este artículo es identificar el léxico disponible de un grupo de aprendices de español como lengua extranjera (ELE) de nivel de competencia lingüística B1 en tres centros de interés: la ciudad; alimentos y bebidas, y medios de transporte, mediante la aplicación de una encuesta de disponibilidad léxica. Los resultados indican que el centro de interés que impulsó mayor cantidad de entradas léxicas fue alimentos y bebidas. Se puede inferir que el léxico de los aprendices de ELE en función de los centros de interés en estudio se encuentra acorde con el nivel de proficienciaB1 -según las nociones básicas del Marco común europeo de referencia (MCER) para las lenguas- y que avanza hacia una consolidación en los posteriores niveles. La aplicabilidad que tiene este tipo de investigación se ve reflejada en el ámbito de la enseñanza de segundas lenguas, específicamente, en la selección adecuada de vocabulario para las clases de ELE por parte de los docentes, quienes deben considerar las unidades léxicas tanto disponibles como frecuentes.

Abstract: The aim of this scientific article is to determine the lexical competence of a group of learners of Spanish as a Foreign Language (SFL) at B1 proficiency level in three interest centers: foods and beverages, the city, and means of transportation. The study was conducted by using a Lexical Availability poll. The results show that the interest center that triggered the biggest amount of lexical entries was foods and beverages. It can be inferred that the lexical competence of learners of SFL corresponds to that of B1 level of proficiency -according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)- and that it moves towards consolidation in upper levels. How applicable this kind of study may be belongs to the field of second language teaching, specifically an adequate selection of vocabulary to use in SFL lessons by teachers -as they must consider both available and frequent lexical items.

Résumé: Le but de cet article est d'identifier le lexique disponible d'un groupe d'apprenants de l'espagnol comme langue étrangère (ELE) du niveau de compétence linguistique B1 dans trois centres d'intérêt -la ville, la nourriture et les boissons, et les moyens de transport-, par l'application d’une enquête de disponibilité lexicale. Les résultats indiquent que le centre d'intérêt qui a déclenché le plus grand nombre d'entrées lexicales était la nourriture et les boissons. On peut en déduire que le lexique des stagiaires ESL selon les centres d'intérêt étudiés est conforme au niveau de compétence B1 selon les notions de base du MCER pour les langues et évoluant vers la consolidation dans les niveaux ultérieurs. L'applicabilité de ce type de recherche est reflétée dans le domaine de l'enseignement des langues secondes, en particulier dans la sélection adéquate du vocabulaire des classes d'ELE par les enseignants, qui devraient considérer à la fois des unités lexicales disponibles et fréquentes.

Resumen Este artículo presenta una breve descripción de la influencia de las voces indígenas en algunas variedades diatópicas del español colombiano. A partir de una revisión bibliográfica, se encontró que los quechuismos, muisquismos, caribismos y tupí-guaranismos son los indigenismos léxicos que caracterizan algunas regiones de Colombia. Así, los quechuismos sobresalen en el subdialecto andino-sureño; y los muisquismos, en el subdialecto cundiboyacense. Por su parte, las palabras de origen caribe no son muchas; pero, al parecer, los hablantes del dialecto llanero (de la región de los Llanos Orientales colombianos) las conocen y emplean más. Finalmente, hay indicios de que el uso de los tupí-guaranismos es frecuente en la frontera con Brasil. Aunque esta zona no se contempló para la elaboración del Atlas Lingüístico-Etnográfico de Colombia y, por lo tanto, no se ha propuesto la existencia de un dialecto para ella, se puede plantear tentativamente la existencia de un dialecto amazónico en el que se destacan estos indigenismos.

Resumo Este artigo apresenta uma breve descrição da influência dos termos indígenas em algumas variedades diatópicas do espanhol colombiano. A partir de uma revisão bibliográfica, constatou-se que os quechuismos, muisquismos, caribismos e tupi-guaranismos são os indigenismos léxicos que caracterizam algumas regiões da Colômbia. Sendo assim, os quechuismos podem ser observados no subdialeto sul-andino, enquanto os muisquismos se destacam no subdialeto cundiboyacense. Por outro lado, não são muitas as palavras de origem caribe; porém, ao que tudo indica, são mais conhecidas e utilizadas pelos falantes do dialeto llanero (da região de planície oriental da Colômbia). Finalmente, há indícios de que o uso dos tupi-guaranismos é frequente na fronteira com o Brasil. Ainda que esta zona não tenha sido contemplada para a elaboração do Atlas Linguístico-Etnográfico da Colombia e, portanto, não tenha sido proposto a existência de um dialeto para ela, é possível propor a existência de um dialeto amazônico no qual se destaquem esses indigenismos.

Abstract The article provides a brief description of the influence of indigenous terms in some diatopic varieties of Colombian Spanish. A review of the bibliography showed that the lexical indigenisms characteristic of some regions of Colombia come from Quechua, Muisca, Cariban, and Tupi-Guarani. Quechua expressions stand out in the Andean-Southern subdialect, while Muisca expressions are present in the subdialect of Cundinamarca and Boyaca. Words of Cariban origin are more scarce, but speakers of the llanero dialect (from Colombia's Eastern Plains) seem to know and use them more. Finally, there is evidence of the frequent use of expressions from Tupi-Guarani along the border with Brazil. Although this zone was not taken into account when preparing the Linguistic-Ethnographic Atlas of Colombia, and, therefore, the existence of a dialect for that zone has not been suggested, it is possible to tentatively propose the existence of an Amazonian dialect in which such indigenisms stand out.

Abstract Identifying translations in comparable corpora is a challenge that has attracted many researchers since a long time. It has applications in several applications including Machine Translation and Cross-lingual Information Retrieval. In this study we compare three state-of-the-art approaches for these tasks: the so-called context-based projection method, the projection of monolingual word embeddings, as well as a method dedicated to identify translations of rare words. We carefully explore the hyper-parameters of each method and measure their impact on the task of identifying the translation of English words in Wikipedia into French. Contrary to the standard practice, we designed a test case where we do not resort to heuristics in order to pre-select the target vocabulary among which to find translations, therefore pushing each method to its limit. We show that all the approaches we tested have a clear bias toward frequent words. In fact, the best approach we tested could identify the translation of a third of a set of frequent test words, while it could only translate around 10% of rare words.

A central concern of scholars of bilingualism is the extent and causes of phenomena that seemingly result from the close contact of two (or more) grammatical systems. Societal bilingualism is characterized by constant and rapid changes which may be observed as they arise and spread in the linguistic and social systems. Likewise, bilingual first language acquisition is characterized by constant changes as children become cognitively and linguistically more mature. This article compares aspects of the grammars of two developing English-Spanish bilinguals with those of adult bilinguals in order to examine the general issue of intergenerational continuity and change in a situation of societal bilingualism. Two types of contact-induced change are identified: copy, a qualitative mechanism that underlies the notion of transfer, and quantitative influence, that is, patterns that are frequent in one language affect the frequency of parallel patterns in a contact language. Changes caused by copying are clearly the result of contact, while those that result from influence may have an internal or an external motivation, or both. The study supports the hypothesis that crosslinguistic interaction affects the lexicon and discourse-pragmatics, but not the core syntax of the languages. Some concrete connections are indentified between early bilingual grammars and those of adult bilinguals, namely the increased production of overt subject pronouns and preverbal subjects,a reduced verbal system, and the reproduction of the meaning of word combinations from English into Spanish. The theoretical implications of the parallels identified between the children’s linguistic behavior and that of adult bilinguals are discussed.

Una preocupación central de los investigadores del bilingüismo es la magnitud y las causas de los fenómenos que aparentemente resultan del contacto de dos (o más) sistemas gramaticales. El bilingüismo social se caracteriza por cambios rápidos y constantes que se pueden observar a medida que surgen y se propagan en los sistemas lingüísticos y sociales. Del mismo modo, la adquisición de dos primeras lenguas se caracteriza por cambios constantes a medida que los niños desarrollan mayor madurez cognitiva y lingüística. Este artículo compara algunos aspectos de las gramáticas de dos bilingües que están adquiriendo simultáneamente inglés y español, con aspectos de las gramáticas de adultos bilingües con el propósito de examinar la cuestión de la continuidad intergeneracional y del cambio. Se identifican dos tipos de cambio inducidos por el contacto lingüístico: copia, un mecanismo cualitativo que subyace a la noción de transferencia, e influencia cuantitativa, es decir, patrones que son frecuentes en un idioma afectan la frecuencia de los patrones paralelos en una lengua de contacto. Los cambios causados por copias son claramente el resultado de contacto, mientras que los que resultan de influencia pueden tener una motivación interna o externa, o ambas. El estudio apoya la hipótesis de que la interacción interlingüística afecta el léxico y la pragmática discursiva, pero no la sintaxis nuclear. Aspectos comunes entre las gramáticas de los niños y las de los adultos bilingües incluyen el gran número de pronombres sujeto explícitos y de sujetos preverbales, el sistema verbal reducido y la reproducción del significado de construcciones léxicas del inglés en el español. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas de los paralelos identificados entre el comportamiento lingüístico de los niños y el de los bilingües adultos.

The aim of this paper is to compile and analyse the most frequent anglicisms in the lexicon used in sports activities offered by Spanish gyms. This domain remains unexplored in the research of the phenomenon of anglicisms in the Spanish language, since the published literature has focused so far on the lexicon of other sports such as football (Fernández 1971; Alonso 1996; Rodríguez González 2012). We have studied a sample of 268 anglicisms taken from the brochures and websites of 15 gyms. Our analysis is not only quantitative but also describes different pragmatic functions of the anglicisms found in the data. This allows us to draw significant conclusions about the evolution of anglicisms as a sociolinguistic and cultural phenomenon in Spanish.

El objetivo de este trabajo es la recopilación y análisis de los anglicismos más frecuentes en el léxico de las actividades deportivas ofrecidas por los gimnasios españoles, pues se trata de un campo inexplorado en la investigación sobre el anglicismo en la lengua española, que, desde hace años, cuenta con estudios centrados en otros ámbitos del deporte como el fútbol (Fernández 1971; Alonso 1996; Rodríguez González 2012). Con tal fin, hemos analizado una muestra de 268 anglicismos detectados en los folletos y webs de 15 gimnasios. Este análisis no solo es cuantitativo, sino que también se describe las distintas funciones pragmáticas de uso, lo que permitirá establecer una serie de conclusiones significativas sobre el grado de madurez del anglicismo en español como fenómeno sociolingüístico y cultural.

Several studies on literacy acquisition conducted in different orthographies such as English, French, Finnish and Italian have shown that morphemes play an early role in visual word processing such as reading and lexical decision. Also, the degree of consistency or transparency between orthography and phonology in a language seems to play a role in the size of the processing units used by young readers. In scripts with highly inconsistent grapheme - phoneme correspondences such as English or French units larger than the grapheme are early used due to the unpredictability of grapheme - phoneme finer grain size mappings. Thus morpheme -and whole word- based reading are early developed by children in these languages. Conversely, in highly consistent languages like Italian or Spanish the grapheme is a reliable unit for visual word processing since almost invariably a single grapheme maps onto a single phoneme. In the acquisition of such scripts whole word reading would be developed later on. This diminished morphological effect in normal development has been explained based on the influence of larger grain size units such as whole words as children master of literacy increases. For instance, Italian developing readers have been shown to be early affected by the morphological components of a stimulus but morphology continued to affect visual word processing only in older children with reading difficulties. Thus this morphological sensitivity seems to develop early in childhood even in transparent orthographies as Italian and it has been described to continue affecting processing only in individuals with reading difficulties. However and to the best of our knowledge very few studies on the influence of morphology in Spanish children have been conducted. None of them was on the influence of morphology in visual word processing tasks such as word reading and lexical decision. That is why the aim of the present study was to obtain evidence of the role of morphology in early literacy acquisition in Spanish. Three groups of children from 2nd to 4th year of primary school participated in the study. Participants were administered a lexical decision and a reading task with high and low frequency words and: (1) morphological non-words made up of morphemes combination (root and suffix); and (2) non-morphological simple non-words. The results showed an effect of frequency in the processing of words, i.e., better processing of highly frequent words as compared to low frequency ones. The influence of a lexical variable like frequency shows that the orthographic input lexicon is also early organized in children that learn the script of a transparent language. In lexical decision morphologically complex non-words were processed with more errors than morphologically simple non-words. In other words, morphology had an inhibitory effect in lexical decision because children had a tendency to accept morphologically complex non-words as real words. This inhibitory effect is compatible with the (at least partial) morphological organization of the orthographic input lexicon. Morphological complexity had the opposite effect during reading of non-words. Morphologically complex non-words were read with fewer errors than morphologically simple non-words. This facilitator effect of morphology for reading can be explained by the fact that for efficient reading children will rely more on larger grain size units like morphemes (as compared to the slower and less efficient grapheme-phoneme based reading processes). In sum, the results of the present study provide evidence of the early organization of an orthographic lexicon that includes morphemes as representation units in Spanish. These units are used by early readers during visual word processing of new stimuli. Such morphological processing proves more useful than sub lexical grapheme-phoneme conversion processing because it deals with larger-grain units than single graphemes and phonemes.

En lenguas con distintos sistemas ortográficos como el inglés, francés, finés e italiano se encontraron efectos de la presencia de morfemas en tareas que involucran el procesamiento de palabras escritas durante el desarrollo lector. Esta sensibilidad a la morfología se observa muy tempranamente en los lectores y también se ha descripto en niños con dificultades en la lectura. El objetivo del trabajo que se informa fue obtener evidencia acerca del rol de la morfología durante el proceso de aprendizaje de la lectura en español. Para ello se evaluaron tres grupos de niños de segundo a cuarto grado con tareas de decisión léxica y de lectura en voz alta, utilizando palabras y no palabras morfológicas, compuestas por dos morfemas en una combinación nueva y no palabras simples, sin componentes morfológicos. Los resultados mostraron, por un lado, un efecto de frecuencia para el procesamiento de palabras en ambas pruebas y, por otro, un efecto de interferencia de los morfemas en la tarea de decisión léxica y de facilitación en la lectura en voz alta para las no palabras compuestas por morfemas. Estos efectos se interpretan como el resultado del desarrollo temprano de un léxico ortográfico que incluye morfemas como unidades de representación utilizadas por los lectores iniciales para el reconocimiento y la lectura de estímulos nuevos. Esto se produce en detrimento de los procesos sublexicales que usualmente se utilizan para procesar estos estímulos nuevos y que son más lentos y laboriosos puesto que procesan unidades menores que el morfema o la palabra completa.

The construction of associated word lists is important for the elaboration of psychological and neuropsychological tasks and experiments. It remains unknown whether differences exist in the semantic associations of words from childhood to adulthood, possibly indicating important lexico-semantic developmental changes that influence neuropsychological assessment. The present study compared semantic word associations in children and adults in terms of forward associative strength and set size. The participants included 247 children from the third grade of elementary school, aged 7 to 11 years (M = 9.17 years, SD = 0.83 years), and 108 adults, aged 16 to 49 years (M = 22.17 years, SD = 6.04 years) from the study of Salles et al. (2008). The task consisted of the participants responding to the first word that came to mind (associate) with a meaning related to each of 87 words presented aloud (target). The children's responses had significantly higher forward associative strength between the target and most frequent associate word and a smaller response diversity index. Although the meaning and total set size did not significantly differ between groups, 40.2% of the targets had a large meaning set size in the children compared with only 10.3% in the adults. Among the most strongly associated pairs, 56.3% were equal between the sample groups. These results suggest that the selection of stimuli for the construction of verbal cognitive tasks should consider specific word association norms for different ages.