Abstract This essay analyzes how the racial hierarchy elaborated by philosophers and anatomists served not only to defend slavery and lead Africans to civilization, but also to combat the slave trade and encourage abolition. Indeed, racial theories reinforced both proslavery and antislavery arguments. The article examined several Brazilian scholars, particularly the writings of naturalist Frederico Burlamaque, politician Adolfo Bezerra de Menezes, and novelists Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and José de Alencar. Between 1820 and 1870, they used climate theory, monogeny, polygeny, phrenology, and physiognomy to describe enslaved people and their descendants, thus listing the evils of slavery or the significant contribution of the enslaved population to the construction of Brazil. Despite holding opposing views, as part of the elite, this literati did not doubt the supremacy of the white race. civilization abolition Indeed arguments scholars Burlamaque Menezes Alencar 182 1870 theory monogeny polygeny phrenology descendants Brazil views elite race 18 187 1

Resumo Este artigo analisa como a hierarquia racial, elaborada por filósofos e anatomistas, prestou-se não somente a defender a escravidão e a condução dos africanos à civilização, mas também a combater o tráfico de almas e incentivar a abolição do cativeiro. De facto, as teorias raciais reforçaram os argumentos escravistas e antiescravistas. O artigo examinou vários letrados brasileiros, mas particularmente os escritos do naturalista Frederico Burlamaque, do político Adolfo Bezerra de Menezes, dos romancistas Joaquim Manuel de Macedo e José de Alencar. Entre 1820 e 1870, eles recorreram à teoria do clima, à monogenia, poligenia, frenologia e fisiognomia para descrever os escravizados e seus descendentes. Assim, enumeravam os males da escravidão ou a contribuição incontornável dos escravizados para a construção do Brasil. Esses letrados defendiam pontos de vista opostos, mas, como parte da elite, não divergiam em relação à supremacia da raça branca. racial anatomistas prestouse prestou se civilização cativeiro facto antiescravistas brasileiros Burlamaque Menezes Alencar 182 1870 clima monogenia poligenia descendentes Assim Brasil opostos elite branca 18 187 1

Abstract Paul Bouts (1900–1999) was a Belgian pedagogue, a Roman Catholic priest, and the founder of Psychognomy, which is a personality diagnostic system combining phrenology and several related practices – typology, craniofacial measurements, physiognomy, graphology etc. Bouts had a fragile health; therefore, it is unlikely that he travelled to Brazil. Despite this, his most famous book, rich in conservative and religious thoughts, was translated to Portuguese and published with ecclesiastic support in 1943, and the doctrine acquired good reputation among Brazilian members of the clergy, politicians, teachers, and military personnel. Lay scholars and medical doctors founded a Brazilian institute devoted to the study and diffusion of psychognomy in 1949. They published two volumes of a psychognomy treatise, and the institute was active until the early 1960s, when social interest in the subject rapidly vanished. 1900–1999 19001999 1900 1999 (1900–1999 pedagogue priest Psychognomy typology measurements physiognomy etc health therefore Brazil this book thoughts 1943 clergy politicians teachers personnel 1949 treatise 1960s s vanished 1900–199 1900199 190 199 (1900–199 194 1900–19 190019 19 (1900–19 1900–1 19001 1 (1900–1 1900– (1900– (1900 (190 (19 (1 (

Resumo Paul Bouts (1900–1999) foi um pedagogo e padre católico belga que criou a psicognomia, um sistema de análise caracterológica que combinava elementos da frenologia, tipologia, medições craniofaciais, fisionomia, grafologia etc. Suas teorias influenciaram acadêmicos, religiosos, políticos e militares brasileiros. Bouts tinha uma saúde frágil, e não há evidências de que tenha estado no Brasil. Seu livro mais famoso, Psicognomia, foi publicado no país em 1943 com aval da censura eclesiástica e com apêndices especiais. A doutrina levou, ainda, à criação, em 1949, de um instituto privado de divulgação e estudos de psicognomia com sede no Rio de Janeiro, que publicou dois volumes de um tratado sobre o tema e permaneceu ativo até o início da década de 1960, quando o interesse pelo assunto rapidamente desapareceu na sociedade. 1900–1999 19001999 1900 1999 (1900–1999 frenologia tipologia craniofaciais fisionomia etc acadêmicos religiosos brasileiros frágil Brasil famoso Psicognomia 194 especiais levou ainda criação 1949 Janeiro 1960 sociedade 1900–199 1900199 190 199 (1900–199 19 196 1900–19 190019 (1900–19 1 1900–1 19001 (1900–1 1900– (1900– (1900 (190 (19 (1 (

Abstract Phrenology emerged in the European medical field of the late eighteenth century and had its peak during the nineteenth century. Its main postulate was that the soul was in the brain, that is to say that it had a material location in the body. In Mexico it was also practiced by a large number of individuals, such as doctors. As soon as the dissemination of this materialist theory was known, the representatives of the Catholic Church began to discredit it in society. So, in this article, we analyze the debates on the "soul" that held representatives of the Catholic Church with some phrenologists or sympathizers of phrenology in the main newspapers of circulation in Mexico City, in a period from 1835 to 1851.

Resumen La frenología surgió en el ámbito médico europeo de finales del siglo XVIII y tuvo su auge durante el siglo XIX. Su principal postulado era que el alma se encontraba en el cerebro, es decir que tenía una localización material en el cuerpo. En México también fue practicada por un amplio número de individuos, entre ellos los médicos. En cuanto fue conocida la difusión de esta teoría materialista, los representantes de la Iglesia católica comenzaron a desacreditarla en la sociedad. Por tanto, en este artículo, se analizan los debates sobre el “alma” que sostuvieron representantes de la Iglesia católica con algunos frenólogos o simpatizantes de la frenología en los principales periódicos de circulación en la Ciudad de México, en el periodo de 1835 a 1851.

Abstract In the midst of the Civil War in Chile in 1891, the Brazilian newspaper Diário de Campinas published an article entitled “Balmaceda,” by Joaquim Nogueira de Sá Itagiba, which analyzes the delirium of Chilean politician José Manuel Balmaceda, president of the Republic from 1886 to 1891 in order to explain his behavior, which it defines as characteristic of a dictator and a tyrant. The article makes liberal use of various psychiatric theories that sought to identify the criminal subject in response to ideals of social normalization. The article was part of the book La prensa extranjera y la dictadura chilena, by Alberto Fagalde, published in 1891, in Chile.

Resumen En medio de la Guerra Civil ocurrida en Chile el año 1891, apareció publicado en el periódico brasileño Diário de Campinas el artículo titulado “Balmaceda”, de autoría de Joaquim Nogueira de Sá Itagiba, donde analiza el delirio del político chileno José Manuel Balmaceda, presidente de la República entre 1886 y 1891, explicando su comportamiento, definido como el característico del dictador y el tirano. El artículo es pródigo en la utilización de diversas teorías alienistas que intentan identificar al sujeto criminal, respondiendo a los ideales de normalización social. El artículo forma parte del libro La prensa extranjera y la dictadura chilena, de Alberto Fagalde, publicado en 1891, en Chile.

RESUMO Os colonizadores belgas usaram a frenologia para criar uma divisão irredutível entre os dois maiores grupos populacionais vivendo há séculos em Ruanda-Urundi. Isso criou as bases para a implementação de esforços sistemáticos para subjugar a grande população Hutu. Tanto os Hutu quanto o grupo menor e inicialmente privilegiado dos Tutsi logo incorporaram o discurso racista, que foi crucial no aumento gradual da violência antes e após a independência de Ruanda em 1962. O genocídio de 1994 constituiu o terrível ápice deste processo envolvendo massacres repetidos. Os médicos não devem subestimar o potencial racista e discriminatório de falsas concepções pseudocientíficas.

ABSTRACT Belgian colonizers used phrenology to create an irreducible division between the two major groups living for centuries in Rwanda-Urundi. This formed the basis for the implementation of systematic efforts to subdue the large Hutu population. Both the Hutus and the smaller, and initially privileged, Tutsi group soon incorporated the racist discourse, which was pivotal to the gradual increase in violence before and after Rwandan independence in 1962. The Rwandan genocide in 1994 culminated in the horrible pinnacle of this process, involving recurrent episodes of slaughtering. Doctors should not underestimate the racist potential of pseudoscientific misconceptions.

This article makes a brief historical review of the phrenology, or doctrine of the brain, which was created by Franz Joseph Gall and developed by Johan Caspar Spurzheim and George Combe. Phrenology was spread by various countries like France and England, but it was in the United States, where it reached a high level of diffusion through the foundation of phrenological societies and journal. Moreover, although their postulates were wrong, it is an important antecedent of applied psychology, which meant the passage of metaphysical explanations to the search of the neurophysiological foundations of human behavior. In that sense, phrenology has a well-earned place in the history of psychology and neuroscience in general, which deserves to be recognized with the value that corresponds to it.

Resumen El presente artículo hace una breve revisión histórica de la frenología, o doctrina del cerebro, que fue creada por Franz Joseph Gall y desarrollada por Johan Caspar Spurzheim y George Combe. La frenología se difundió por diversos países como Francia e Inglaterra, pero fue en Estados Unidos, donde alcanzó un alto nivel de difusión a través de la fundación de sociedades frenológicas y revistas. Además, aunque sus postulados fueron equivocados, es un antecedente importante del localizacionanismo y de la psicología aplicada, que significó el paso de las explicaciones metafísicas a la búsqueda de los fundamentos neurofisiológicos de la conducta humana. En tal sentido, la frenología tiene un lugar bien ganado en la historia de la psicología y de las neurociencias en general, que merece ser reconocido con el valor que le corresponde.

El objetivo del presente artículo es reflexionar desde una perspectiva antropológico-histórica sobre la diagramación disciplinaria de la frenología como umbral desde el cual discutir la influencia intelectual que causó en Argentina. Recuperando una serie de casos estudios de tal índole realizados en la Argentina, ilustraremos los sentidos teóricos subyacentes a las prácticas de mediciones antropométricas y asociaciones fisonómicas como metodología de investigación, intentaremos poner de relieve algunas particularidades adoptadas por la frenología en el escenario nacional. Para ello presentaremos una descripción del campo frenológico en la época, recuperaremos las contribuciones contemporáneas realizadas en investigaciones interesadas en la temática, y buscaremos articular los resultados brindados por los análisis teórico-conceptuales previos con los aportes provistos por la información brindada por el nuevo caso de análisis. Como cierre, plantearemos algunas consideraciones finales sobre los acontecimientos analizados esperando así contribuir con la propuesta de algunos dispositivos heurísticos orientadores para futuras investigaciones en la materia.

This article aims to ponder on phrenology's discipline plotting from an anthropological historical perspective, being phrenology a threshold from which to discuss the intellectual influence it had in Argentina. By recovering a series of case studies on this field in Argentina, we will illustrate the theoretical senses underlying the practice of anthropometric measurements and physiognomic associations as their research methodology; we will attempt to highlight some particulars followed by phrenology on the national scenario. In order to do that, we will provide a description of the field of phrenology at that time; we will recover contemporary contributions made through research on this issue, and will try to articulate the outcomes given by previous theoretical-conceptual analyses along with the contributions given by the information provided in the new case under analysis. To conclude, we will present some final reflections on the events analysed expecting to advance several heuristic devices to guide future research in this field.

O objetivo do presente artigo é refletir, a partir de uma perspectiva antropológico-histórica, sobre a diagramação disciplinaria da frenologia como um ponto de partida mediante o qual é possível debater a influência intelectual que teve no nosso país. Recuperando uma série de casos de estudo, realizados na Argentina, ilustraremos os sentidos teóricos subjacentes às práticas antropométricas e às associações fisionômicas como metodologia de pesquisa. Tentaremos destacar algumas particularidades adotadas pela frenologia no cenário nacional. Para isso, apresentaremos uma descrição do campo frenológico da época; recuperaremos as contribuições contemporâneas realizadas nas pesquisas interessadas nesse assunto, e buscaremos vincular os resultados prévios das análises teórico-conceituais com as contribuições obtidas a partir da informação do novo caso estudado. Por fim, faremos algumas considerações finais sobre os acontecimentos analisados, esperando, desse modo, contribuir com a proposta de alguns dispositivos heurísticos que possam orientar futuras pesquisas nessa temática.

Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace independently discovered natural selection, and a set of common experiences surely contributed to that event. But, there were also major differences in their life-experience as collectors and travelers, their socio-political commitments, and their personal styles. The present paper is focused on, what is, perhaps, the most fundamental area of disagreement between Darwin and Wallace: the evolution of humanity. Darwin argued that human evolution could be explained by natural selection, with sexual selection as a signifcant supplementary principle. Wallace always had doubts about sexual selection, and ultimately concluded that natural selection alone was insuffcient to account for a set of uniquely human characteristics. Among these characteristics, the size and complexity of the human brain, found in all extant human races, occupied a central position. Wallace proposed that some new agent had to be invoked, in order to explain the existence of a brain, that could support the common intellectual activities of European culture, but was not (in his view) required to support survival and reproduction in the people that he lived with in the tropics. Wallace’s interest in the human brain, and in a materialistic view of brain function, was a natural outcome of an early and enduring belief in Phrenology. Once he had identifed the “paradoxical” cerebral hypertrophy of non-European racial groups, Wallace’s commitment to “adaptationism,” meant that a supplementary principle had to be invoked in order to account for that hypertrophy. The invocation of a higher power, and/or supreme intelligence, that intervened to create modern humanity, was undoubtedly facilitated by his interest in, and conversion to, spiritualism. Wallace’s abandonment of natural selection and sexual selection, as the sole agents of human evolution, set him apart from Darwin - and that, inevitably raises questions about the reasons for Wallace’s defection. Among Wallace’s personal traits was a consistent attraction to unpopular causes, including phrenology and spiritualism. Just as he had been attracted to evolutionary ideas, against the prevailing views of his time, so he diverged, from his fellow “Darwinists,” by invoking the action of a “Higher Intelligence” to account for the nature of our species.

Charles Darwin y Alfred Russel Wallace descubrieron de forma independiente la selección natural; seguramente ciertas experiencias en común posibilitaron dicho evento. Sin embargo, hubo diferencias mayores en sus experiencias de vida como colectores y viajeros, en sus compromisos socioculturales y sus estilos personales. El presente ensayo se centra en, lo que quizás constituya, el área de mayor desacuerdo entre Darwin y Wallace: la evolución de la humanidad. Darwin argumentó que la evolución humana podía explicarse mediante selección natural, con la selección sexual como un principio suplementario importante. Wallace siempre tuvo dudas sobre la selección sexual, y concluyó que la selección natural por sí sola era insufciente para dar cuenta de un grupo de características único de los humanos. Entre éstas, el tamaño y complejidad de la mente humana, presente en todas las razas, ocupó un lugar central en sus argumentos. Wallace razonó que agentes adicionales debían ser invocados para explicar la existencia de una mente, que podía dar cuenta de las actividades intelectuales de la cultura europea, pero que no era (en su visión) requerida para explicar la supervivencia y reproducción de las personas con las que él había vivido en los trópicos. El interés de Wallace en la mente humana, y en una visión materialista del funcionamiento de la misma, fue una consecuencia natural de su creencia en la frenología. Una vez que visualizó la paradójica hipertrofa cerebral de los grupos raciales no europeos, el compromiso de Wallace con el “adaptacionismo” derivó en la necesidad de invocar un principio suplementario para explicar dicha hipertrofa. La invocación de un poder superior, y/o de una inteligencia suprema, que intervino para crear la humanidad moderna, fue propiciada indudablemente por su interés, a la vez que conversión, en el espiritualismo. El abandono de Wallace de la selección natural y sexual, como los únicos agentes detrás de la evolución humana, lo apartaron de Darwin; hecho que inevitablemente aparejó incertidumbre sobre los motivos de su deserción. Entre las características personales de Wallace fguraba una atracción consistente por causas impopulares, incluyendo la frenología y el espiritualismo. Así como se sintió atraído por las ideas evolutivas, contrarias a las ideas prevalecientes de su tiempo, se alejo de sus colegas darwinistas al invocar la acción de una “inteligencia superior” para dar cuenta de la naturaleza de nuestra especie.

Phineas Gage es a no dudar, uno de los pacientes más famosos de la historia de la neurología, una cita indefectible en textos neurológicos y objeto de numerosos artículos científicos a lo largo de más de ciento cincuenta años. Este caso tan excepcional ha permitido establecer el papel principal que en el pensamiento y en la capacidad de sociabilizar tienen las regiones frontales del cerebro, especialmente la porción ventromedial, así como los circuitos y sistemas relacionados con las emociones, cuya activación conjunta con las regiones frontales, participa de forma fundamental en la planificación y toma de decisiones, y contribuye a determinar el tono afectivo de nuestras relaciones sociales. Una revisión sumaria de la historia de la medicina nos indica que es inusual que el nombre de un paciente y no el del médico que describe una situación clínica, sea mencionado para la posteridad. ¿Por qué entonces se recuerda el nombre de Gage y no el de su médico tratante y acusioso descriptor de su insania, John Martyn Harlow? Quizá porque el caso es todavía considerado como una de las mejores descripciones de un desorden “psicopático” del comportamiento relacionado con una lesión traumática del córtex prefrontal, donde la correlación anatomoclínica ha sido intentada empleando diversas concepciones y métodos a la usanza de los diversos momentos históricos. La ocasión de este relato permitirá al lector pasearse a través de la fascinante evolución y perfeccionamiento de las ideas que han llevado al conocimiento actual de la localización de las funciones neurológicas, y a atisbar el desentrañamiento de los loci de la mente y del espíritu.

Phineas Gage is doubtless one of the most famous patients in the history of neurology. An infallible quote in neurology textbooks and the object of numerous scientific articles for over one hundred and fifty years. This exceptional case has allowed investigators to establish the role of the frontal cortex, specifically its ventromedial portion in the development of human thought and his/her capacity to socialize and also the close relationship of these structures with emotion-related circuits and systems which participate in the decision-making process and contributes to determine the affective tone of social interaction. A brief glance at the history of medicine shows it is exceedingly infrequent for a patient’s name to transcend into posterity. Why then is the name Gage remembered instead of John Martin Harlow’s, the keen describer of Gage’s insanity? Perhaps because Gage’s case is still considered one of the salient descriptions of a “psychopathic” disorder of behavior directly related to a traumatic lesion of the prefrontal cortex in which an anatomoclinical correlation has been attempted through diverse conceptions and methods tailored to each historical period of time. Gage’s tale will take the reader for a ride along the fascinating evolutional pathways of medical thinking that have permitted the acquisition of knowledgeable localization of neurological function and allowed scientists to peep into the entangled realm of the mind and spirit.