Abstract This article aims to understand the inferential reading strategies employed by Spanish-speaking eleventh-grade students when reading English texts. The methodology used adopts a qualitative approach and its design is framed within a collective case. The instruments employed in this study were a reading test and a semi-structured interview. The study involved the participation of five eleventh-grade students from a public educational institution in the city of Medellin, Colombia. These students engaged in four readings encompassing descriptive, narrative, expository, and argumentative texts. The results showed that the most frequently applied inference strategies were retroactive, while the least frequently applied were logical and projective. The study concludes that enhancing inferential reading in English among Spanish-speaking students necessitates the development of pre-reading strategies that contribute to both situational and linguistic understanding of the text, as well as promoting re-reading practices among students.

Resumen El artículo tiene como objetivo comprender las estrategias de lectura inferencial de textos en inglés utilizadas por estudiantes hispanohablantes de grado once. La metodología empleada en el estudio tiene un enfoque cualitativo y su diseño está enmarcado en un caso colectivo. Se utilizaron un test de lectura y una entrevista semiestructurada como herramientas de recolección de datos. La investigación contó con la participación de cinco estudiantes de grado once de una institución educativa pública en Medellín, Colombia. Durante el estudio, los estudiantes realizaron la lectura de cuatro tipos de textos: descriptivo, narrativo, expositivo y argumentativo. Los resultados indicaron que las estrategias inferenciales más utilizadas fueron las retroactivas, mientras que las lógicas y proyectivas se aplicaron con menor frecuencia. Como conclusión, se sugiere la creación de estrategias de prelectura que enriquezcan la comprensión situacional y lingüística del texto, así como promover la relectura entre los estudiantes, como medios para fortalecer la lectura inferencial en inglés para estudiantes de habla hispana.

Abstract Theoretically delimited to Linguistic Historiography, this article answers the following question: how was the presence of formalisms in linguistics in Brazil in the 1960s-1970s? Such question leads to the objectives of the analysis: (i) to characterize formalist linguistics in Brazilian linguistics; (ii) to delimit scientific guidelines of these formalisms; (iii) to identify social processes of institutionalization to aforesaid linguistics. The corpus consists of (a) journal articles, scientific bulletin texts, reviews, historical review books and chapters; (b) theses and dissertations; (c) manuals; (d) official documents; (e) testimonies, interviews. The material was selected and analyzed through three phases: 1st) heuristic: definition of periodization and selection/treatment of the corpus; 2nd) hermeneutic: establishment of ruling guidelines for historiographic analysis; 3rd) expository: presentation of results in a historiographic narrative. In the 1960s-1970s, Brazilian linguistics was largely a linguistics of domain of structures through the adoption of methodological instruments that identified systematic regularities (at different levels that highlighted the structural nature of languages) and supported rhetorics in defense of scientific positions. This historical characterization is defended in this article.

Resumen Delimitado teóricamente a la Historiografía Lingüística, este artículo contesta a la siguiente pregunta: ¿cómo fue la presencia de formalismos en la lingüística en Brasil durante las décadas de 1960-1970? Esta pregunta lleva a los objetivos del análisis: (i) caracterizar lingüísticas formalistas en la lingüística brasileña; (ii) delimitar directrices y alcances científicos de estos formalismos; (iii) identificar procesos sociales de institucionalización de dichas lingüísticas. El corpus está compuesto por (a) artículos de revistas, textos de boletines científicos, reseñas, libros y capítulos de reseña histórica; (b) tesis y disertaciones; (c) manuales; d) documentos oficiales; (e) testimonios, entrevistas. Este material se seleccionó y se analizó en tres fases: 1ª) heurística: definición de periodización y selección/tratamiento del corpus; 2ª) hermenéutica: establecimiento de directrices para el análisis; 3ª) expositiva: presentación de resultados en una narrativa historiográfica. En los años 1960-1970, la lingüística brasileña fue en gran medida una lingüística del dominio de las estructuras mediante la adopción de un instrumental metodológico que identificaba regularidades sistemáticas (en diferentes niveles que evidenciaban la naturaleza estructural de las lenguas) y ofreció apoyo para retóricas de defensa de posicionamientos científicos. Esta caracterización histórica se defiende en este artículo.

Resumo Delimitado teoricamente à Historiografia Linguística, este artigo responde ao seguinte questionamento: como foi a presença de formalismos na linguística no Brasil das décadas de 1960-1970? Essa pergunta conduz aos objetivos da análise: (i) caracterizar linguísticas formalistas na linguística brasileira; (ii) delimitar diretrizes e alcances científicos desses formalismos; (iii) identificar processos sociais de institucionalização dessas linguísticas. O corpus é composto de (a) artigos de periódicos, textos de boletins científicos, resenhas, livros e capítulos de revisão histórica; (b) teses e dissertações; (c) manuais; (d) documentos oficiais; (e) depoimentos, entrevistas. Esse material foi selecionado e analisado em três fases: 1ª.) heurística: definição da periodização, seleção/tratamento do corpus; 2ª.) hermenêutica: estabelecimento de diretrizes para a análise; 3ª.) expositiva: apresentação de resultados em uma narrativa historiográfica. Nos anos 1960-1970, a linguística brasileira foi em grande parte uma linguística do domínio das estruturas por meio da adoção de instrumental metodológico que identificava regularidades sistemáticas (em diferentes níveis que evidenciavam a natureza estrutural das línguas) e oferecia suporte para retóricas de defesa de posicionamentos científicos. Essa caracterização histórica é defendida neste artigo.

Abstract The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate the application of computerized programming to teach how to study expository texts. Principles of programmed instruction were used, and different target behaviors were focused on: inspecting the text, locating and highlighting important information, paraphrasing, building schemes, and conceptual maps, and elaborating questions on the topic. The activities were designed and carried out using Google Forms, Socrative, and Wordwall applications. Nine students from the 3rd to the 6th year of elementary school, from public and private schools, participated in this study. Participation was online and remote. The results showed an improvement in the performance of the participants in seven of the ten selected objectives for evaluation. In conclusion, it is possible to teach how to study expository texts through programmed instruction based on a clear description of the objectives involved in this repertoire. used text information paraphrasing schemes maps topic Forms Socrative applications rd th school schools remote evaluation conclusion repertoire

Resumo O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a aplicação de uma programação informatizada para ensinar a estudar textos didáticos. Utilizando princípios para a elaboração do ensino programado, teve-se como foco diferentes comportamentos-alvo: inspecionar o texto, localizar e grifar informações importantes, parafrasear, construir esquemas e mapas conceituais, e elaborar questões sobre o tema. As atividades foram elaboradas e realizadas utilizando os aplicativos Google Forms, Socrative e Wordwall. Participaram desse estudo nove estudantes do 3o ao 6o ano do ensino fundamental, de escolas públicas e privadas. A participação foi online e remota. Os resultados apontaram melhora no desempenho dos participantes em sete dos dez comportamentos selecionados para avaliação. Conclui-se que é possível ensinar comportamentos de estudo de textos didáticos por meio de uma programação de ensino a partir da descrição clara dos objetivos envolvidos neste repertório. programado tevese teve se comportamentosalvo alvo comportamentos-alvo texto importantes parafrasear conceituais tema Forms Wordwall fundamental privadas remota avaliação Concluise Conclui repertório

BACKGROUND: Although the reading of science texts has been reported for high school learners, there is not much research on how younger learners engage with expository texts and how they develop academic language skills. In the instance of this study, the topic came from the curriculum content about animal reproduction AIM: The study from which this article emanated aimed to explore how a sample of learners engaged with a short text, which required cohesive reading and some background knowledge and vocabulary SETTING: This study was conducted in a suburban school where the learners use English as a second language METHODS: A sample (n = 25) was randomly selected from five Grade 4 classes. Their reading comprehension of a custom-designed test was assessed, along with their writing competence in their responses to content questions as well as their drawings. The data were analysed in a typical content analysis modality RESULTS: This study showed that the learners do not apply inferencing skills and do not read cohesively across sentences and paragraphs and that their vocabulary and prior knowledge of animal reproduction is limited CONCLUSION: The urgent need for the development of academic language skills in the early grades is foregrounded in this article, arguing that it can be infused in subjects across the curriculum of the early grades CONTRIBUTION: The task can be used by teachers and by researchers who may wish to replicate the study

The paper explores distinctive ways in which Kopano Matlwa's novel Evening Primrose (2018) employs continuities and discontinuities between surface-level literary expression and underlying identity and cultural literacy. It is a desktop study centred on Kopano Matlwa's novel Evening Primrose (2018) as a primary text, as well as of secondary expository texts for theoretical and earlier literary commentary that constitute the article's conceptual matrix. I demonstrate how the author's thematic manoeuvring challenges notions of determinist culture and official mapping as fixed, as well as espouse conceptions of globalism that accommodate identity and cultural heterogeneity. As I discuss stylistic dimensions of the narrative from the vantage point of the theory of ecocriticism, I include the tenets of Es'kia Mphahlele's concept of African humanism as well as the concepts of 'borderland', 'code-switching' and 'integration literacy'. My findings have led to the conclusion that the novelist's discourses are encoded in the texture of the novel in ways that portray the South African post-apartheid milieu as informed by an intricate intersection of distinctive identity and cultural literacies that the various characters display. My scrutiny of the environment-adoptive cognitive processes in the mind of Matlwa's characters has led to a novel analogy between integration identity and cultural literacy and unitary grammar, reached psycholinguistically through code-switching. CONTRIBUTION: This study provides new insights into how the novelist Kopano Matlwa employs literary discourse uniquely to explore South Africa's post-apartheid, evolving social psyche in ways that diagnostically assert alternative cultural identity intersections, readings and articulation. The paper plumbs beneath surface-level characterisation to externalise how key character categories of the novel under discussion do practicalise the potency of the post-apartheid context to forge a composite heterogeneity of cohabiting and mutually respecting cultures that have entered it. In novel ways, the theoretical matrix applied in the analysis of the novel galvanises a recognition of commonalities hitherto unidentified, mainly between tenets of originally Eurocentric ecocriticism and those of an Afrocentric African humanism. I compare the characters' successful creation of new cultural literacies, integrated with a new environment, to a successful integration of unitary grammar related to the linguistic process of code-switching. In this way, a new kind of relationship is projected between literary analysis and language learning.

Abstract: The present text intends to offer a first approximation to some thematic lines and some theoretical approaches that appear with medium recurrence in the critical texts produced around the Cuban narratives of the Year Zero Generation in Cuba. The analysis is guided by some methodological perspectives based on the study of the protocols of literary criticism and its three simultaneous layers (theory; object and construction; and expository and textual dimension) that allowed us to recognize the systematic dialogue framed (and established) by the literary criticism, between literature and political, economic and cultural reality in Cuba from the early 2000s to the present.

Resumen: El presente texto se propone ofrecer una primera aproximación a algunas líneas temáticas y a algunos enfoques teóricos que aparecen con mediana recurrencia en los textos críticos producidos alrededor de las narrativas cubanas de la Generación Año Cero en Cuba. Guían el análisis algunas perspectivas metodológicas sustentadas en el estudio de los protocolos de la crítica literaria y sus tres capas simultáneas (teoría; objeto y construcción; y dimensión expositiva y textual) que permitieron reconocer el sistemático diálogo entramado (y entablado) por parte de la crítica literaria, entre literatura y realidad política, económica y cultural en Cuba a partir de los primeros años 2000 hasta la actualidad.

Resumen La comprensión lectora resulta fundamental en la vida escolar de los niños, dado que constituye el principal mecanismo para la adquisición de nuevos conocimientos. Distintos estudios han analizado la relación entre la comprensión lectora, las habilidades lingüísticas y el nivel lector de los sujetos. Sin embargo, resulta importante para el estudio del procesamiento textual, atender también al tipo de estructura de los textos. El presente trabajo se propone comparar el desempeño de un grupo de niños hispanohablantes en comprensión oral y escrita de dos tipos textuales distintos: narrativos y expositivos. Para ello, se evaluó a un grupo de 32 niños de 4to grado de una escuela primaria del conurbano bonaerense argentino mediante pruebas de comprensión oral y escrita de textos narrativos y expositivos. Además, se administró una prueba de vocabulario y de precisión y velocidad en la lectura de palabras. Los resultados señalaron la existencia de correlaciones entre la comprensión oral y escrita de los dos tipos textuales evaluados, y entre el desempeño en comprensión oral y escrita y el nivel de vocabulario de los niños. El análisis comparativo entre modalidades de presentación señaló un desempeño significativamente superior en la comprensión de textos narrativos orales frente a los escritos. Esta diferencia no se trasladó a los textos expositivos en los cuales los niños obtuvieron desempeños bajos, en ambas modalidades. Los datos obtenidos sugieren que los textos expositivos presentan un formato con características específicas que complejizan la comprensión de los niños más allá del soporte en el cual se presenten.

Abstract Reading comprehension is the ability to create a mental representation of a written text. It constitutes the main mechanism through children incorporate new knowledge at school age. Reading comprehension achievement has been systematically associated with oral comprehension and reading rate. Furthermore, both oral and reading comprehension has been related to inferences generation and different linguistic abilities, like vocabulary and syntax processing. In the case of text comprehension, also orthographic recognition of written words plays a fundamental role and, for that reason, reading comprehension would be a greater challenge than oral comprehension for early readers. Indeed, word recognition during reading is essential for text meaning construction. It is well known that a slow and laborious reading mechanism would overload cognitive processing and that reading automaticity is essential to carry out text processing. Longitudinal studies realized in different orthographies indicated that reading rate was the variable that had greatest impact on reading comprehension in early readers. In studies carried out in shallow orthographies, it was also observed that reading performance have an important impact on reading comprehension measure after 3 to 5 years of instruction. However, although impact of reading skills and oral comprehension mechanisms on reading comprehension has been reported in several studies, there is another important factor to consider: text structure. Studies propose that children tend to understand “narrative schemas” more easily since they are exposed to this type of text from a very early age. Likewise, all narrative texts present, in general, the same type of structure, respect temporal sequence of events and focus on story characters, their actions and motivations. In contrast, expository texts present new information to children, are oriented to a specific topic, contain less familiar and more technical vocabulary and a higher level of abstraction. This type of structure presents numerous cohesive connections and greater propositional density than narrative texts. The present study aims to compare listening and reading comprehension of narrative and expository text. For this, a group of 32 4th graders was evaluated in oral and reading comprehension of narrative and expository texts. In reading comprehension test, children read narrative and expository texts and then orally answered a series of questions. In oral comprehension, both narrative and expository texts were read aloud to children and then they answered questions about the texts orally. Vocabulary and reading rate were also measured. Data analysis shows correlations between oral comprehension and vocabulary. Reading comprehension were associated to vocabulary, oral comprehension and reading rate. Results suggest that oral and reading comprehension are associated with different linguistic skills and to each support access skills. In comprehension test, measures show higher performance in narrative oral comprehension texts when compared to reading comprehension. This result could be related to children reading rate. In fact, reading performance shows that children were “slow readers” according to the reading tests scales used in this study. Difference between oral and written comprehension in narrative texts, was not transferred to expository. In this type of texts children had low scores, without significant differences, in oral and reading comprehension. Results suggested that expository structures challenge children comprehension in both, oral and written modality. It is suggested that different types of expository texts difficult hierarchization of information that allows, in turn, the construction of text mental representation. Data of this study suggest the importance of establish interventions that allow children to improv text processing for access higher levels of comprehension in different textual structures. Furthermore, it is necessary in educational practices to expose children to expository structures from an early age. On the other hand, it is necessary to rethink reading instruction methods that originate low reading performance.

Abstract Teachers generally focus on promoting criticality and try, at all costs, to develop intertextuality processes in the student body, leaving aside the other essential levels to achieve the final product. In this sense, it is vital to bear in mind that the order of the factors, in this case, would alter the result, since velis nolis must carry out a cycle and specific procedures to achieve the objectives set in advance. For this reason, it is necessary to show that the readings for less and above than expected according to some characters and quantity of fixations affect textual comprehension. On the other hand, a transformative sequential design with a mixed approach was applied to this research, a sample of 80 students from the secondary level of a private educational institution in the municipality of Galapa-Colombia was selected, who read three texts related to the electromagnetism on the Eye tracker T.120 screen and using Tobii.3.4.6 software. The results allow us to confront from the teaching practice different positions on the incursion of these variables in the reading processes. Finally, it is concluded that visual fixations play a main role for the understanding of a text and, therefore, the design of a didactic proposal that takes science and the image as a reference is proposed as a prospective one in order to seek adequate understanding by the student reader.

Resumen Por lo general, el profesorado se centra en promover la criticidad y trata, a toda costa, desarrollar procesos de intertextualidad en el estudiantado, dejando de lado los otros niveles indispensables para conseguir el producto final. En este sentido, es vital tener presente que el orden de los factores, en este caso, si alteraría el resultado, ya que velis nolis se debe llevar un ciclo y unos procedimientos específicos para lograr los objetivos trazados con antelación. Por este motivo, es necesario demostrar que las lecturas por menos y encima de lo esperado conforme a unos caracteres y cantidad de fijaciones inciden en la comprensión textual. Por otra parte, en esta investigación se aplicó un diseño transformativo secuencial con enfoque mixto, se seleccionó una muestra de 80 estudiantes de nivel secundario de una institución educativa privada del municipio de Galapa-Colombia, quienes realizaron una lectura de tres textos relacionados con el electromagnetismo en la pantalla del Eye tracker T.120 y con el uso del software Tobii.3.4.6. Los resultados permiten confrontar desde la práctica docente distintas posturas sobre la incursión de estas variables en los procesos lectores. Finalmente, se concluye que las fijaciones visuales cumplen un rol principal para la comprensión de un texto y por consiguiente, se plantea como prospectiva el diseño de una propuesta didáctica que tome como referente la ciencia y la imagen para buscar la comprensión adecuada por parte del lector.

ABSTRACT Expository texts constitute a fundamental typology in the development of the degree project, they are complex and represent a challenge for university students. The aim was to describe the cohesion features present in the types of expository texts used in the development of the degree project. Descriptive research and discourse analysis were used; the linguistic corpus consisted of 15 undergraduate papers (2020-2021). The data collection instrument was a descriptive matrix; the data analysis technique was content analysis. Most of the expository texts present weaknesses in the use, reformulations, explanatory appositions, lexical precision, use of modalizers, endophoric resources, abundance of formulas with stylistic values and few closing resources, which affects textual coherence. Features such as the use of text organizers, use of canonical word order, present indicative, specific adjectivation are well achieved.

RESUMEN Los textos expositivos constituyen una tipología fundamental en la elaboración del trabajo de grado, son complejos y representan un reto para los estudiantes universitarios. Se persiguió describir los rasgos de cohesión presentes en los tipos de textos expositivos utilizados en el desarrollo del proyecto de titulación. Se empleó la investigación descriptiva y el análisis del discurso; el corpus lingüístico se integró por 15 trabajos de grado (2020-2021). El instrumento de recolección de datos fue una matriz descriptiva; la técnica de análisis de datos fue el análisis de contenido. La mayoría de los textos expositivos presentan debilidades en el empleo, reformulaciones, aposiciones explicativas, precisión léxica, empleo de modalizadores, recursos endofóricos, abundan las fórmulas con valores estilísticos y hay pocos recursos de cierre, lo que afecta la coherencia textual. Son bien logrados rasgos como el uso de los organizadores del texto, empleo del orden de palabras canónico, presente de indicativo, adjetivación específica.

ABSTRACT The writing of texts becomes a fundamental element in the educational task and in the training of students in school, because it contributes to developing the complex thinking of the student. The population was made up of 83 students in the fourth grade of secondary education from a public educational institution, located in the district of José Leonardo Ortiz (Lambayeque-Peru). The sample was made up of 20 students. The results obtained in the prestest show that the highest percentage of students is located in the preformal (30%) and receptive (50%) levels; On the other hand, in the post-test, no student is located in the preformal level and only 10% in the receptive one. Regarding the autonomous and strategic levels, in the prestest no student managed to reach these levels; however, in the posttest, 15% reached both levels.

RESUMEN La redacción de textos se convierte en un elemento fundamental en el quehacer educativo y en la formación de estudiantes en etapa escolar, debido a que contribuye a desarrollar el pensamiento complejo del educando. La población estuvo conformada por 83 estudiantes de cuarto grado de educación secundaria de una institución educativa pública, ubicada en el distrito de José Leonardo Ortiz (Lambayeque-Perú). La muestra la constituyeron 20 estudiantes. Los resultados obtenidos en el prestest evidencian que el mayor porcentaje de estudiantes se ubica en los niveles preformal (30%) y receptivo (50%); en cambio, en el postest, ningún estudiante se ubica en el nivel preformal y solo un 10% en el receptivo. En cuanto a los niveles autónomo y estratégico, en el prestest ningún estudiante logró alcanzar dichos niveles; sin embargo, en el postest, el 15% alcanzó ambos niveles.

Resumen El estudio sobre la competencia comunicativa se centró en la fluidez oral y en la comprensión de textos como dos aspectos desvinculados. Sin embargo, el contexto áulico implica leer textos especializados para comunicarlos al profesorado y a las y los compañeras/os de curso. Por ende, no es suficiente juzgar la participación del alumnado de L2 a nivel gramatical y/o pragmático, sino que hace falta una profundización sobre cómo se comunica el contenido especializado en el aula para acreditar la comprensión, es decir probar haber comprendido el texto. Sobre todo, que la comprensión de este recurso pedagógico es un indicador de un proceso de enseñanza eficiente que cumple con determinados objetivos de aprendizaje. En este sentido, esta investigación tuvo como objetivo determinar las estrategias de comunicar y acreditar lo leído en cursos de Historia y Literatura en español como L2 en Chile. Para ello, se contó con la participación de sesenta estudiantes y cuatro docentes y se implementó un método de estudio de caso cualitativo basado en observación de clases. Los datos se interpretaron mediante un análisis de contenido en el programa de Nvivo 12. Los resultados apuntan a que comunicar lo leído es una habilidad estratégica e independiente del dominio oral y que varía en función de las disciplinas y los textos que se enseñan en cada una. Se puede concluir que las características del material didáctico determinan cómo se comunica y se acredita lo leído en el aula, incluso podrían llegar a facilitar su asimilación tal es el caso de los textos expositivos en los cursos de Historia.

Abstract The study on communicative competence focuses on oral fluency and text comprehension as two unrelated aspects. However, the classroom context involves reading specialized texts to communicate them to professors and classmates. Therefore, it is not enough to judge the L2 student's participation on the level of grammatical correctness and/or pragmatic adequacy, but it is necessary to investigate how the specialized content is communicated in the classroom to confirm comprehension, i.e. to prove that the text has been understood. Especially that the comprehension of this pedagogical resource is an indicator of an efficient teaching process that meets certain learning objectives. In this sense, this investigation aimed to determine the strategies to communicate what is read and confirm comprehension in Spanish L2 History and Literature courses in Chile. For this purpose, sixty students and four professors participated in the investigation and a qualitative case study was implemented based on classroom observation. The data were interpreted through a content analysis in Nvivo 12 program. The results suggest that communicating what is read is a strategic skill, independent of oral proficiency and varies according to the discipline and the texts taught in each. The main conclusion is that the characteristics of the teaching material determine how what is read in class is communicated and understood and may even facilitate its comprehension, as is the case of expository texts used in History courses.

Abstract: Reading academic texts is a highly demanding experience which requires that one not only comprehends what one reads, but also learns from it. These demands become increasingly common starting in intermediate-level elementary courses. As a consequence, students have to acquire new strategic resources that consist of performing mental actions oriented towards a specific objective (such as selecting only information that meets a certain criterion) in light of certain cues (e.g., a textual expression such as “the primary cause is …). We need to understand this challenge in order to provide the instructional support that students require. For this reason, the objective of this paper is to identify the needs of students to use such reading strategies, based on the review of our previous studies. Basically, we show that students find it more difficult to process meta-textual cues to mobilize their strategic courses of action than deploying such courses of action: that is, there is a dissociation between the sensitivity to the cues and the ability to perform the course of action linked to them. They also experience difficulties in remembering reading objectives when they have to select information in accordance with meta-textual cues. This evidence leads us to differentiate between two instructional approaches for students: the first is aimed at helping the students to understand the text they are reading, while the second is aimed at teaching them to understand any text. Finally, we clarify when and why the former approach could be particularly useful.

Resumen: Leer textos académicos es una experiencia altamente demandante, ya que exige no solo comprender lo que se lee, sino también aprender de ello. Esta exigencia se vuelve cada vez más común desde los cursos intermedios de la enseñanza primaria. Consecuentemente, los estudiantes deben adquirir nuevos recursos estratégicos, que consisten en llevar a cabo acciones mentales guiadas por una meta explícita (por ejemplo, seleccionar solo la información que cumpla con un criterio determinado) ante la presencia de ciertas claves (por ejemplo, una expresión textual como “la primera causa es…”). La adquisición de estos recursos representa un reto que debemos entender bien para proporcionar el apoyo instruccional necesario. Por esa razón, este artículo busca identificar algunas de las necesidades que experimentan los estudiantes en el uso de estas estrategias de lectura, con base en algunos de nuestros estudios previos. Básicamente, mostramos que los estudiantes presentan más dificultades para procesar las claves textuales que guían sus acciones estratégicas que para llevarlas a cabo: es decir, hay una disociación entre la sensibilidad a las claves y la capacidad para ejecutar el curso de acción ligado a ellas. Además, presentan dificultades para recordar las metas de lectura cuando deben seleccionar la información de acuerdo con ellas. Estas evidencias nos llevarán a diferenciar dos planteamientos instruccionales: el primero pretende ayudar a los estudiantes, durante la lectura, a comprender el texto que están leyendo; el segundo está destinado a enseñarles cómo comprender cualquier texto. Finalmente, clarificamos cuándo y por qué ayudar a comprender podría ser especialmente útil.

Resumo Os textos expositivos representam a realidade segundo uma modalidade lógico-científica. Eles geralmente consistem em linguagem escrita e representações gráficas não verbais, como tabelas e gráficos, cada um dos quais transmite alguns dos significados do texto (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Os textos expositivos são predominantes no mundo acadêmico e no sistema educacional, e são desafiadores em todos os níveis de ensino (Berman & Nir, 2009). Este estudo explora a produção de textos expositivos por crianças no nível inicial: quando precisam deste tipo de textos, que recursos escolhem e como esses recursos contribuem para o significado textual. Método: Os participantes foram quatro professores de nível inicial em Israel e seus alunos, de três a seis anos de idade. Cada professor documentou eventos de produção textual, incluindo a descrição da produção textual, a transcrição das conversas das crianças e fotografias dos textos com comentários explicativos. A análise textual foi baseada na identificação de marcadores de gênero (Coutinho & Miranda, 2009), funções de texto (Donald, 1991), representações verbais e de layout nãoverbal e texto (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Resultados: As crianças produziram textos correspondentes a seis gêneros: uma definição, uma tabela de observação, um guia de aves, uma ficha informativa, um manual de instruções e um dicionário bilíngüe. Esses textos foram úteis para armazenar e recuperar informações, monitorar seu próprio comportamento e se comunicar com outras pessoas. As crianças usaram diferentes tipos de representação: palavras escritas para nomear, desenhos para formas, numerais para representar quantidade e comprimento, tabelas para organizar os dados. O estudo mostrou que as representações gráficas não verbais enriquecem os recursos de produção textual das crianças, podendo auxiliálas a apreender e apropriarse gradativamente dos gêneros textuais expositivos.

Abstract Expository texts represent reality in a logical-scientific way. They often consist of written language and nonverbal graphic representations, such as tables and graphs, each conveying some of the text meanings (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Expository texts are prevalent in the academic world and the educational system, and are challenging at all levels of education (Berman & Nir, 2009). The current study explores preschool children’s production of expository texts: when they need them, what resources they choose, and how these contribute to text meaning. Method: Participants were four Israeli preschool teachers and their students, aged 3-6 years. In each preschool, the teacher documented text production events, describing the context of text production, transcribing children’s conversations and adding comments explaining the photographed texts. Text analysis included identifying genre markers (Coutinho & Miranda, 2009), text functions (Donald, 1991), verbal and nonverbal representations and text layout (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Findings: The children produced texts of six genres: a definition, an observation table, a bird guide, an information sheet, an instruction manual, and a bi-lingual dictionary. These helped them store and retrieve information, monitor their own behavior and communicate with others. Diverse types of representations were used: written words for naming, drawing for shapes, numerals for quantity and length, and tables for organizing data. The study shows that nonverbal graphic representations enrich children’s text producing resources, and may help them gradually grasp and appropriate expository text genres.

Resumen Los textos expositivos representan la realidad de acuerdo a una modalidad lógico-científica. Frecuentemente consisten en lenguaje escrito y representaciones gráficas no verbales, tales como tablas y gráficos, cada uno de los cuales transmite algunos de los significados del texto (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Los textos expositivos son predominantes en el mundo académico y el sistema educativo, y resultan desafiantes en todos los niveles educativos (Berman & Nir, 2009). El presente estudio explora la producción de textos expositivos por parte de niños en nivel inicial: cuándo necesitan este tipo de textos, qué recursos eligen, y cómo estos recursos contribuyen al significado textual. Método: Los participantes fueron cuatro docentes de nivel inicial en Israel y sus alumnos, de tres a seis años de edad. Cada docente documentó eventos de producción textual, incluyendo para ello la descripción de la producción textual, la transcripción de las conversaciones de los niños y fotografías de los textos con comentarios explicativos. El análisis textual se basó en la identificación de los marcadores de género (Coutinho & Miranda, 2009), funciones del texto (Donald, 1991), las representaciones verbales y no verbales y la disposición del texto (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2006). Resultados: Los niños produjeron textos correspondientes a seis géneros: una definición, una tabla de observación, una guía de aves, una planilla informativa, un manual de instrucciones y un diccionario bilingüe. Estos textos les resultaron útiles para almacenar y recuperar información, monitorear su propio comportamiento y comunicarse con otras personas. Los niños utilizaron diversos tipos de representación: palabras escritas para nombrar, dibujos para formas, numerales para representar cantidad y longitud, tablas para organizar datos. El estudio mostró que las representaciones gráficas no verbales enriquecen los recursos de producción textual de los niños, y pueden ayudarlos a aprehender y apropiarse gradualmente de los géneros textuales expositivos.

Resumen La formación en competencias comunicativas del futuro personal docente se ha convertido en una necesidad en el Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior (EEES). En este sentido, es fundamental conocer la competencia escritora de las personas docentes en formación y, concretamente, sus habilidades para elaborar un texto. Por ello, el objetivo de este artículo de investigación fue la validación de una rúbrica analítica para evaluar textos expositivos escritos por estudiantado universitario. El instrumento ha considerado siete dimensiones generales que se valoran, a partir de una escala de estimación, que va de excelente a deficiente, pasando por bueno y aceptable. Mediante una metodología mixta (cualitativa-cuantitativa), se procedió a la validación del instrumento, en el que inicialmente 12 personas juzgaron, de manera independiente, validaron su contenido y después se realizó su validación estadística con el software StatisticalPackageforthe Social Sciences (SPSS). Se obtuvo la unanimidad de juicio del equipo evaluador, así como una elevada consistencia interna en el instrumento. Por tanto, la rúbrica goza de una adecuada validez de constructo, constatada por la valoración experta, y una alta fiabilidad, lo que justifica su utilidad para analizar y valorar textos expositivos en futuro estudiantado universitario y docentes en formación.

Resumo Resumo: A capacitação em competências comunicativas de futuros docentes se transformou em uma necessidade no Espaço Europeu de Educação Superior (EEES). Nesse sentido, é fundamental conhecer a competência escrita dos docentes em formação e, de fato, suas habilidades para elaborar textos. Por isso, o objetivo deste artigo de pesquisa foi a validação de uma rubrica analítica para avaliar textos expositivos escritos por estudantes universitários. O instrumento utilizado considerou sete dimensões gerais que são avaliadas em uma escala de estimativa que varia de excelente a ruim, passando por bom e aceitável. Com o uso de uma metodologia mista (qualitativa e quantitativa), se procedeu a validação do instrumento, no qual inicialmente 12 pessoas fizeram o julgamento de forma independente, validaram seu conteúdo e depois foi realizada a validação estatística com o software Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Obteve-se a unanimidade no julgamento entre os avaliadores, assim como uma elevada consistência interna no instrumento. Portanto, a proposta possui uma validade adequada de construto, constatada pela avaliação dos juízes e uma alta confiabilidade, o que justifica sua utilização para analisar e avaliar textos expositivos de estudantes universitários e professores em formação.

Abstract Teaching communicative competences to future teachers has become a need for the European Higher Education Area (EHEA). In this regard, it is essential to know the writing competence of the teachers in training and, specifically, their skills when it comes to writing a text. For that reason, this research article aimed to validate an analytical rubric to evaluate expository texts written by university students. The tool has taken into consideration seven general dimensions assessed according to an estimation scale, ranging from excellent to deficient, including good and acceptable. The validation of the tool was carried out using a mixed methodology (quantitative-qualitative), in which initially 12 independent judges validated its content, and then a statistical validation with the statistical package software (SPSS) was conducted. The results were the obtention of the unanimity of judgment among judges and high internal consistency in the tool. Therefore, the rubric has the suitable construct validity, validated by the judges’ assessment, and high reliability, which justifies its usefulness in analyzing and assessing expository texts to be written by future university students and teachers in training.

Abstract: Reading comprehension in the English language is a process that has been studied from different disciplines. Many postgraduate programs require certification in another language, hence the importance of seeking semantic patterns that allow the creation of intelligent tools to train students in these tasks. The objective of this work is to characterize expository passages semantic structures through FOL and situation calculus with the question-answer block.