Resumen Introducción: la obesidad es un rasgo multifactorial determinado por la interacción de factores biológicos, ambientales, psicosociales y político-socioeconómicos. Propósito: el objetivo de esta revisión descriptiva-exploratoria es discutir el papel del consumo de alimentos altamente procesados y de alta palatabilidad (APAP) en la epidemia de la obesidad, así como presentar algunas propuestas para disminuir su ingesta. Argumentos para la discusión: los APAP se caracterizan por ser energéticamente densos, ricos en grasas y azúcares. En su formulación se utiliza una gran cantidad de aditivos industriales para potenciar su sabor, vida útil y la estabilidad de sus componentes. Suelen contener sustancias químicas conocidas como disruptores endocrinos (EDC) que se transfieren de los empaques al alimento, como el bisfenol A y los ftalatos, y afectan distintas vías de señalización hormonal, promoviendo alteraciones en el metabolismo del tejido adiposo y otros sistemas endocrinos. El sobreconsumo de APAP induce a cambios neuroplásticos en el sistema de recompensa y esto aumenta, a la vez, el número de porciones, con la subsecuente acumulación de grasa corporal; además, dicho abuso causa desbalances en la composición del microbioma intestinal (disbiosis) asociados al desarrollo de obesidad. Conclusiones: el sobreconsumo de APAP incrementa el riesgo de obesidad y enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, máxime si se inicia a edades tempranas. Para contrarrestar esta problemática, se plantea cambiar la estructura de la canasta básica, regular la venta dentro y alrededor de centros educativos, crear mayores impuestos y fortalecer la investigación en obesidad, APAP y EDC.

Abstract Introduction. Obesity is a multifactorial trait provoked by the interaction of biological, environmental, psychosocial, and socioeconomic factors. Proposal: The goal of the present review is to discuss the role of ultra-processed and highly palatable foods (UPHP) in the development of the obesity epidemic through an exploratory-descriptive review and to present some suggestions for controlling its consumption. Arguments for discussion: UPHP are energy dense foods with high contents of fat and sugar. UPHP are formulated with many industrial additives used for enhancing flavor, shelf life, and the stability of their components. UPHP used to contain diverse chemicals known as endocrine disruptors (EDC), which are transferred from packaging to foods, with bisphenol A and phthalates as the most common EDC. The EDC disrupt different hormonal signaling pathways affecting the metabolism of the adipose tissue and other endocrine systems. The overconsumption of UPHP induces neuroplastic changes in the brain reward system that increases their consumption, leading to body fat accumulation. In addition, the overconsumption of UPHP alters the composition of the intestinal microbiome (dysbiosis), which is associated with the development of obesity. Conclusions: The overconsumption of UPHP increases the risk of obesity and its related chronic, non-communicable diseases, especially when consumption initiates during early life. To counteract this problem, we proposed the following actions: changing the structure of the market-food basket, incorporating regulations to reduce the UPHP supply in and around educational centers, creating new taxes upon UPHP, and strengthening the research regarding obesity, and the effects of UPHP and EDC.

The South African energy crisis harms the economy. Tax incentives are intended to help, but rules for incentives must be understood by all stakeholders for taxpayers to be encouraged to invest. Section 12L (S12L) is relatively new legislation that allows a tax deduction for verifiedyear-on-year energy efficiency savings in South Africa. Concurrent benefits are excluded from this tax incentive, to prevent a double reward for the same activity. Although the prevention of double benefits is commonly addressed in the field of measurement and verification (M), non-technical guidelines are not available. This is a critical shortcoming since multiple professions (tax, audit and legal) need to understand the technical M requirements of S12L. This study reviews the current legislation and interpretations of concurrent benefits in terms of S12L. It shows that multiple energy-related incentives are utilised by industries and that, therefore, it must be determined if different programmes overlap, so as to create concurrent benefits with S12L. It is then critical to correctly apply M to ensure exclusion of concurrent benefits. This study also provides a simplified methodology to evaluate concurrency, based on the S12L regulatory requirements and standard M methods. Three case studies show how concurrency can occur and how M practice is applied to exclude double benefits. The test for concurrency is shown to reduce to the following question: Is the same energy saving funded twice? The tests must be done to ensure no double benefit occurs. HIGHLIGHTS: • Multiple energy efficiency and power generation programmes are required to address the energy crisis South Africa. • Concurrency tests are developed to ensure double rewards are not paid for the same energy efficiency savings. • Simple and clear communication of the technical tests to different disciplines (e.g. energy, tax, audit and legal) is important. • Proposals for policy development and communication of S12L incentives and carbon tax are made.

Abstract Background: food is a powerful reinforcer that motivates people to eat. The TaqI A1 polymorphism (rs1800497; T>C) downstream of the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene has been associated with diminished DRD2 receptor density, higher food reinforcement, and impaired eating behavior in adults. Objective: to evaluate the association between the rs1800497 polymorphism and the reinforcing value of food and eating in the absence of hunger in Chilean children. Material and method: nineteen Chilean children (aged 8-12 years) who were carriers of the A1-allele and 19 age- and gender-matched non-carriers (A2-allele) were evaluated on the reinforcing value of food and eating in the absence of hunger. Anthropometric measures were performed by standard procedures. Briefly, children received a standard pre-load lunch followed by an ad-libitum exposure to palatable foods. Results: no differences were found between A1-allele carriers and non-carriers, whether obese or non-obese, in ad libitum energy intake, macronutrient consumption, or the relative reinforcing value of food (p > 0.05). In obese children, A1 carriers reported significantly lower satiety and fullness before lunch (p < 0.05). However, in children with normal weight A1 carriers were found to exhibit trends for greater satiety and fullness before lunch when compared to non-carriers, but this trend reversed after lunch such that carriers exhibited lower satiety and fullness (p = 0.06). Conclusions: although TaqI A1 may play an important role in some eating behavior-related traits such as satiety and fullness, especially in obese children, our findings indicate that this polymorphism does not appear to affect eating in the absence of hunger or food reinforcement in children.

Resumen Antecedentes: los alimentos son un poderoso reforzador de la alimentación. El polimorfismo TaqI A1 (rs1800497; T> C) del gen del receptor 2 de dopamina (DRD2) se ha asociado con una menor densidad de DRD2, un mayor refuerzo alimentario y un comportamiento alimentario alterado en adultos. Objetivo: evaluar la asociación entre el polimorfismo rs1800497, el valor reforzador del alimento y la conducta de comer en ausencia de hambre en niños chilenos. Material y método: treinta y ocho niños chilenos, 19 portadores del alelo A1 y 19 no portadores (alelo A2), pareados por género y edad, fueron evaluados en condiciones de laboratorio para determinar el valor reforzador del alimento y la conducta de comer en ausencia de hambre. Las mediciones antropométricas se realizaron por procedimientos estándar. Brevemente, los niños recibieron un almuerzo estándar seguido de una exposición ad-libitum a alimentos sabrosos. Resultados: no hubo diferencias en la ingesta ad libitum de energía, ni en el consumo de macronutrientes, ni en el valor reforzador del alimento entre los portadores del alelo A1 frente a los no portadores (p > 0,05). Entre los niños obesos, los portadores del alelo A1 reportaron un menor nivel de saciedad y plenitud pre-almuerzo (p < 0,05). Sin embargo, entre los niños con normopeso se observó que los portadores de A1 tenían tendencia a presentar un mayor grado de saciedad y plenitud (pre-almuerzo) frente a los no portadores. Esta tendencia se invirtió post-almuerzo, de modo que los portadores exhibieron menor saciedad y plenitud (p = 0,06). Conclusiones: la variante TaqI A1 podría desempeñar un papel importante en algunos rasgos relacionados con la conducta alimentaria, como la saciedad y la plenitud.

Behaviors such as the search and consumption of food are aimed to obtain the energy substrates needed to sustain diverse organic functions required to guarantee the survival of an individual. The alimentary behavior has two regulatory systems: the homeostatic system, located in the hypothalamus and the hedonic system, represented by the cerebral reward system. These systems are modulated by both stimulatory (orexigenic) and inhibitory (anorexigenic) signals of appetite. Under chronic stress conditions, the activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which regulates the plasma cortisol concentration, will lead to the establishment of different mechanisms that promote the ingestion of food with high energy density, which are considered as powerful disruptors of appetite regulation processes, a condition potentially capable of promoting the development of compulsive food search behavior, a disruption in the energy balance and obesity. Repeated consumption of appetizing foods represents an opportunity for self-medication aimed at stress relief, providing a condition or opportunity for comfort. Epidemiological data suggests a strong link between glucocorticoids and metabolic syndrome. The relationship between chronic stress, cortisol and high food intake has visceral adiposity and insulin resistance as predisposing factors of metabolic disruption with important consequences to the health status of humans. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the implications of stress and cortisol on food intake.

La búsqueda de alimento y su consumo son conductas dirigidas a satisfacer la obtención de los sustratos energéticos necesarios para sostener las diferentes funciones orgánicas que un individuo requiere para garantizar su supervivencia. La conducta alimentaria cuenta con dos sistemas reguladores, uno homeostático ubicado en hipotálamo y otro de tipo hedónico, representado por el sistema de recompensa cerebral. Dichos sistemas están modulados por señales estimuladoras (orexigénicas) e inhibidoras (anorexigénicas) del apetito. En condiciones de estrés crónico, la actividad del eje hipotálamo-hipófisis-adrenal, que regula la concentración de cortisol plasmático, dará lugar al establecimiento de diferentes mecanismos que promuevan la ingesta de alimento de elevada densidad energética, los cuales son considerados como poderosos disruptores de los procesos de regulación del apetito, condición potencialmente capaz de favorecer el desarrollo de una conducta compulsiva en la búsqueda de alimento, una disrupción en el balance energético y obesidad. El consumo repetido de alimentos apetitosos representa para los individuos vulnerados una oportunidad de automedicación dirigida al alivio del estrés, brindando una condición u oportunidad de confort. Los datos epidemiológicos sustentan la idea de un fuerte vínculo entre glucocorticoides y síndrome metabólico. La relación entre estrés crónico, cortisol e ingesta elevada de alimento tienen a la adiposidad visceral y a la resistencia a la insulina como factores predisponentes de una disrupción metabólica con consecuencias importantes al estado de salud de los seres humanos. El presente artículo tiene como objetivo valorar las implicaciones del estrés y cortisol sobre la ingesta de alimento.

Abstract The reward sensation after food intake may be different between individuals and variants in genes related to the dopaminergic system may indicate a different response in people exposed to the same environmental factors. This study investigated the association of TaqIA (rs1800497) and -141C InsDel (rs1799732) variants in DRD2/ANKK1 gene with food intake and adiposity parameters in a cohort of children. The sample consisted of 270 children followed until 7 to 8 years old. DNA was extracted from blood and polymorphisms were detected by PCR-RFLP analysis. Food intake and nutritional status were compared among individuals with different SNP genotypes. Children carrying the A1 allele (TaqIA) had higher energy of lipid dense foods (LDF) when compared with A2/A2 homozygous children at 7 to 8 years old (GLM p=0.004; Mann Whitney p=0.005). No association was detected with -141C Ins/Del polymorphism. To our knowledge, this is the first association study of the DRD2 TaqIA and -141C Ins/Del polymorphism with food intake and anthropometric parameters in children. DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism has been associated with a reduction in D2 dopamine receptor availability. Therefore, the differences observed in LDF intake in our sample may occur as an effort to compensate the hypodopaminergic functioning.

Abstract: The subjectivity detection is an important binary classification task that aims at distinguishing natural language texts as opinionated (positive or negative) and non-opinionated (neutral). In this paper, we develop and apply recent subjectivity detection techniques to determine subjective and objective tweets towards the hot topic of nuclear energy. This will further help us to detect the presence or absence of social media bias towards Nuclear Energy. In particular, significant network motifs of words and concepts were learned in dynamic Gaussian Bayesian networks, while using Twitter as a source of information. We use reinforcement learning to update each weight based on a probabilistic reward function over all the weights and, hence, to regularize the sentence model. The proposed framework opens new avenues in helping government agencies manage online public opinion to decide and act according to the need of the hour.

Abstract: Macrotus waterhousii is a phyllostomid bat whose diet is poorly known, particularly in semiarid and temperate central Mexico. In this work additional information is reported from food remains discarded by this bat, including taxonomic composition, frequencies and size range of consumed insects; the assessment of a prediction on prey hardness of food insects, at the ordinal level; relative energy reward of insect prey in the sample; a comparison of the composition of the food sample from the arid study locality against one from a subtropical-temperate site; and brief comments on the known ecological importance of particular prey in the arid site. A sample of insect food remains discarded by Macrotus waterhousii bulleri, was recovered from under a roost in semiarid northern Querétaro, Mexico. The taxonomic identity, estimated relative abundance, size, hardness, and ecological relations of prey species in the sample were studied and results were compared with reference to feeding ecology. A comparison of the data with available information on food taken by Macrotus waterhousii mexicanus in temperate-subtropical central Mexico was made. Information on the importance of the most relevant identified insects was extracted from literature and analyzed. In Querétaro, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera were frequent; moths dominated but, as a single species, the (winged) ant, Atta mexicana was most frequent. Nocturnal insects were frequent; diurnal ones may have been gleaned at night. A sample from Estado de México featured Orthoptera, Coleoptera, and Lepidoptera. Wingspan range of frequent prey in Querétaro was 25-80 mm, but moths over 70 mm were over one fifth of the sample. Prey hardness estimation was similar to that for Macrotus californicus. Some insects identified are of ecologic and agricultural relevance. Insects known to be seasonally abundant in the environment were also abundant in the sample, presumably captured according to that availability. However this bat, aside from eating insects of moderate size in proportion to its jaw size, is also capable of capturing large moths and these may represent a significant energy intake. Most insects are nocturnal species. The taxonomic composition of the food samples from both areas suggests that M. waterhousii (sensu lato) may be mostly an opportunistic predator. Local insect fauna composition and dynamics may be hypothesized to influence food taken by M. waterhousii. Several insect species consumed by this bat in semiarid Querétaro have crucial roles in the ecology of arid land vegetation, as well as some economic importance for agriculture as pests.

Resumen: Macrotus waterhousii es un murciélago filostómido cuya dieta se conoce pobremente, particularmente en áreas semiáridas y templadas del centro de México. Este trabajo aporta información adicional a partir de restos de alimentos descartados por este murciélago incluyendo: composición taxonómica, frecuencias e intervalo de tamaño de los insectos consumidos; evaluación de una predicción sobre dureza de presas al nivel de órdenes entomológicos; recompensa energética relativa de los insectos en la muestra; una comparación de la composición de la muestra de restos alimenticios del sitio árido con una de un sitio subtropical-templado; y comentarios breves sobre la importancia ecológica de presas particulares en el sitio árido. Se recuperó una muestra de restos de insectos descartados por Macrotus waterhousii bulleri bajo un refugio en el norte semiárido de Querétaro, México. Se estudiaron la identidad taxonómica, la abundancia relativa estimada, el tamaño, dureza estimada y relaciones ecológicas de los insectos presa y se contrastaron los resultados en referencia a la ecología de la alimentación de este quiróptero. Se compararon los resultados con información disponible sobre alimentación de Macrotus waterhousii mexicanus en un sitio templado-subtropical de México central. Se extrajo y estudió información de literatura sobre la importancia de los insectos más relevantes en la muestra. En Querétaro fueron frecuentes Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera y Coleoptera; dominaron las mariposas nocturnas pero la hormiga Atta mexicana fue la más frecuente. Predominaron insectos nocturnos; los diurnos pudieron ser recogidos posados, por la noche. Un reporte del Estado de México incluyó Orthoptera, Coleoptera y Lepidoptera. La envergadura de presas frecuentes en Querétaro fue de 25-80 mm, pero más de una quinta parte fueron mariposas nocturnas de más de 70 mm. La dureza estimada de presas es similar a la de Macrotus californicus. Algunos de los insectos identificados tienen relevancia ecológica o en la agricultura. Insectos que se sabe son abundantes estacionalmente en el ambiente fueron también abundantes en la muestra, presumiblemente capturados conforme a esa disponibilidad. Sin embargo, este murciélago, además de alimentarse de insectos de tamaño moderado en proporción al tamaño y estructura de sus mandíbulas, también es capaz de capturar mariposas nocturnas grandes y éstas pueden representar in ingreso significativo de energía. La mayoría de los insectos son especies nocturnas. La composición taxonómica de las muestras de restos de alimento en ambos sitios sugiere que M. waterhousii (sensu lato) puede ser principalmente un depredador oportunista. Puede formularse la hipótesis de que la composición local de la fauna de insectos y su dinámica influyen en el alimento tomado por M. waterhousii. Varias especies de insectos consumidos por este murciélago en la parte semiárida de Querétaro tienen papeles cruciales en la ecología de la vegetación árida, así como cierta importancia económica para la agricultura, como plagas.

Animal welfare and the survival of a particular species are threatened by environmental changes; for the reestablishment of homeostasis and adaptation, organisms put on collective stress responses. These responses are mediated by interconnected circuits of the frontal limbic system, hypothalamus and brain, where the final release of glucocorticoids guarantee energy supply through glucose mobilization, thus affecting brain reward and learning processes. Stress becomes detrimental when the animal is not able to neutralize the stressor, real or perceived. Consequences of over exposition to glucocorticoids are characterized by hyperglycemia, hypertension, recurrent infections and memory, as well as behavior modification. Determination of animal stressors can be complicated. While some stressors are easily recognized by human beings (extreme temperatures, lack of food, severe injuries), others are not (territory, social relationships, motivation, odors and sounds). On the other hand, habituation to humans at an early age could be indispensable to reach a good human-animal relationship, as human environment could be perceived as a stressor itself. In the particular case of domestic animals it is considered that habituation must begin as soon as possible to reach a good human animal relationship. People in daily contact with animals, such as veterinarians, are in the best position to recognize suffering and give advice to owners for the environmental modifications that may improve animal welfare for a particular species.

El bienestar y la supervivencia de los individuos se ven amenazados por cambios ambientales; para restablecer la homeostasis y lograr adaptarse, el organismo pone en marcha respuestas colectivas de estrés. Estas respuestas están mediadas por circuitos interconectados del sistema límbico frontal, hipotálamo y cerebro, donde la liberación final de glucocorticoides asegura el aporte de energía mediante movilización de glucosa. El resultado final de la sobreexposición a glucocorticoides se refleja en la alteración de los sistemas corporales con hiperglucemia, hipertensión, infecciones recurrentes, alteración de la memoria y del control del comportamiento. Reconocer los eventos que pueden estresar a los animales domésticos no es sencillo. Mientras que algunos desencadenantes de estrés son fácilmente reconocidos por el hombre (temperaturas extremas, falta de alimentos, lesiones severas) otros pueden pasar desapercibidos (territorio, relaciones sociales, motivaciones, olores y sonidos). Por otra parte, se reconoce que la habituación a la especie humana en edad temprana es indispensable para una buena relación humano-animal, más aún, el ambiente humano puede ser percibido como un factor estresante en sí mismo.

Variations in the quality or quantity of a food source determines if an animal takes the risk of spending energy searching for or eating it. Hummingbirds have been traditionally catalogued as risk-averse foragers. However, the inclusion of more than 2 options in a foraging set for risk-sensitive experiments has resulted in the observation that some hummingbird species preferred intermediate risk even if they had been risk-averse in a traditional binary risk experiment. These contrasting results suggest an effect of having multiple foraging options that had been ignored due to the design of previous risk experiments. Here, we studied the influence of varying reward volume (Experiment 1) or sugar concentration (Experiment 2) on choice behavior of white-eared hummingbirds, Hylocharis leucotis, by recording their visits to feed from a sucrose solution located in 4 artificial floral arrays associated with constant, low, medium, and high variance. In both experiments, each of the vertical arrays was evaluated in a training stage and a test stage. The birds visited all the arrays without discriminating among them, and thus were indifferent to variations in the volume or sugar concentration of reward. Thus, there was no influence of variance of nectar volume and sugar concentration on the choice behavior of the birds, ruling out the possibility that white-eared hummingbirds are risk sensitive under these conditions of 4 foraging alternatives.

La variación en la cantidad o calidad de una fuente de alimento determina si un animal toma el riesgo de invertir energía en su búsqueda o consumo. Los colibríes han sido típicamente catalogados como forrajeadores aversivos al riesgo. Sin embargo, la inclusión de más de 2 opciones en una prueba de forrajeo para experimentos de sensibilidad al riesgo han resultado en la observación de que algunas especies de colibríes muestran riesgo intermedio incluso si habían sido aversivos al riesgo en pruebas binarias de riesgo. Estos resultados contrastantes sugieren un efecto de enfrentar opciones múltiples de forrajeo, el cual había sido ignorado debido al diseño de experimentos previos sobre riesgo. Aquí, se estudia la influencia de la variación en el volumen (Experimento 1) o la concentración de azúcar (Experimento 2) en la conducta de elección de colibríes oreji-blanca Hylocharis leucotis, al registrar sus visitas a 4 arreglos florales artificiales asociados con una varianza constante, baja, media y alta. En ambos experimentos, cada arreglo vertical fue evaluado a través de una fase de entrenamiento y una de prueba. Las aves visitaron todos los arreglos sin discriminar entre ellos, siendo indiferentes a la variación en el volumen o concentración de la recompensa ofrecida. Así, no hubo un efecto de la varianza en el volumen de néctar y la concentración de azúcar en la conducta de elección de estas aves, eliminando la posibilidad de que los colibríes oreji-blanca son sensibles al riesgo bajo condiciones de alternativas múltiples de forrajeo.

Eating is a behavior oriented to get the energy necessary for the organism to survive and to contend with the demands of its environment. Food, besides of energy, provides structure and function, as amino acids are converted into structural or secretion proteins or enzymes. These proteins are synthesized following a strict genetic code. Variants in the genome happen frequently, but only those changes that result in a poor adaptive phenotype are well documented. There are other changes that may go unnoticed due to culture influence, and they may be seen as adaptive because they seem to favor individuals in the short-term. A child that overeats and becomes overweighed is culturally appreciated as a healthy child. However, systematic studies have shown that these feeding styles influenced by culture, in the long-term, result on an irreversible damage to the individual. Food selection also depends on the functioning of homeostatic and hedonistic systems. The homeostatic system involves the hypothalamus that includes nuclei that promote both appetite and satiety. The hedonic system is constituted by the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens. Stimulation of the ventral tegmental area induces the release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens, making the individual to experience pleasure. This system also interacts with the hypothalamic systems that promote appetite. As it can be seen, food intake is regulated by diverse cerebral systems that are under the influence of one another. Failure in one of these systems may lead the subject to a compulsive, or defective, food intake. We have allowed media and mercantilist interests to govern our diet, instead of allowing our brain and its systems to do it. We should have psycoeducation as a priority in medicine to improve our capacity to select better quality food to eat, without compromising the pleasure of eating.

Comer es una conducta dirigida a conseguir la energía para llevar a cabo las funciones que mantienen al organismo y le permiten contender contra las demandas del medio. Debido a que nuestro organismo evolucionó dentro de un ambiente con escasez de alimentos, los genes que nos adaptaron al medio fueron los que promueven el almacenamiento y optimización de los nutrientes, así como aquellos que promueven la habilidad de generar estrategias de cacería y otras conductas orientadas a ese objetivo. Estos mecanismos fisiológicos y bioquímicos incluyen una amplia variedad de genes, desde aquellos que codifican para enzimas que almacenan el glucógeno hasta enzimas que sintetizan o degradan a los neurotransmisores. Diversos sistemas cerebrales regulan la ingestión del alimento: El homeostásico involucra al hipotálamo lateral como promotor de la ingestión de alimento por medio de neuronas orexinérgicas y MCHérgicas, al núcleo arcuato que sintetiza y libera neuropéptido Y y al péptido relacionado al gen agouti y como promotor de la saciedad a través de la POMC y del CART. Diferentes hormonas y proteínas hipotalámicas participan en la función del sistema hedónico compuesto por el área ventral tegmental y el núcleo accumbens, produciéndose un diálogo entre los sistemas homeostásico y hedónico. Otros sistemas cerebrales que participan son la amígdala y el lóbulo de la ínsula que promueven la selección de los alimentos con base en la experiencia. La corteza prefrontal participa en la preferencia por los alimentos y la toma de decisiones tales como qué, cuándo y dónde comer. Es importante reconocer que los sistemas neuroquímicos que regulan la ingestión del alimento también participan en funciones cognitivas y que la falla en estos sistemas afecta la forma en que el individuo elige su alimentación y, a su vez, el estado cognitivo del sujeto. Por lo tanto, la psicoeducación para regular los hábitos alimenticios debe ser una prioridad en el campo de la medicina.

The Joint Committee on Health at Work make up by: ILO/WHO (International Labour Organization and the World Health Organization) in 1992, recognized that inappropriate management, affects people's health through physiological and psychological mechanisms known as stress. The aim of this study was to evaluate the risks associated to toxic management, and to certain psychological demands; as contributors to mental distress, lack of stress and job dissatisfaction of psychiatrists, vitality psychologists and medical residents of a Child Psychiatric Hospital (CHPH). Material and methods The study design was a cross-sectional survey, descriptive and observational. Instrument: The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire COPSOQ). Originally developed in Denmark, was adapted and validated in Spain. The internal consistency of the scales was Cronbach's a (0.66 to 0.92) and Kappa indices (0.69 to 0.77). Statistical analysis. Descriptive analysis was expressed by means, percentages and standard deviations. Bivariate analysis was calculated between psychosocial factors and dimensions of health. The comparisons between categorical variables were analized through chi square tests, and Fisher's exact test was used when the number of observations in the cells of the contingency table was less than 5. The results were expressed by prevalence ratios and their respective confidence intervals were calculated. Statistical analysis was performed using JMP statistical package version 7 and SPSS version 17. Results A total of 111 clinicians were surveyed: 30 psychiatrists, 46 psychologists and 35 medical residents. The response rate was 97%. The age range of the clinical staff was, from 26 to 65 years, with M=40, SD=6.5 years. Association between psychosocial demands and dimensions of health. Major problems presented by clinical staff, were explained from 3 axes. First axis, about psychological demands. We evaluated five types of psychological demands, but those that emerged as predictors of mental distress, loss of energy and cognitive behavioral stress symptoms, were the emotional demands. Emotional demands had statistically significant associations with mental distress (OR 3.67, 95% CI 1.28-10.01), behavioral symptoms (OR 3.59, 95% CI 1.28-10.06) and cognitive stress (RP 2.15, 95% CI 1.00-5.12) as well as lack of vitality (OR 1.78, 95% CI 1.01-3.13) (table4). Second axis: about quality of leadership, this concept showed statistically significant association with: mental distress (OR 2.83, 95% CI 1.19-6.76), with cognitive symptoms (OR 2.33, 95% CI 1.00-5.60) and behavioral stress (RP 2.24, 95% CI 1.06-4.75) and lack of vitality (OR 1.65, 95% CI 1.06-4.75). Other high-risk concept was: Managers' low social support, that showed statistically significant association with job dissatisfaction (OR 3.08, 95% CI 1.41-6.73), lack of vitality (OR 1.41, 95% CI 1.12-1.78) and mental distress (OR 1.39, 95% CI 1.07-1.81). Within the same second axis of analysis, lack of predictability was significantly associated with: mental distress (OR 2.33, 95% CI 1.40-3.88), behavioral symptoms (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.31-3.41) cognitive stress symptoms (OR 2.07, 95% CI 1.19-3.61), and lack of vitality (OR 1.63, 95% CI 1.17-2.29). Third axis: the effort-reward imbalance; had a statistically significant association between job insecurity and all dimensions of health such as behavioral symptoms of stress (RP 1.97, 95% CI 1.14-3.41), lack of vitality (RP 1.94, 95% CI 1.23 -3.07), mental distress (RP 1.73, 95% CI 1.04-2.88), and cognitive symptoms of stress (RP 1.39, 95% CI 1.12-1.72). But stronger association was found between insecurity and job dissatisfaction (OR 7.65, 95% CI 1.09-53.75). Hence, the lack of esteem was significantly related to mental distress (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.12-3.95), with behavioral symptoms of stress (OR 1.82, 95% CI 1.03-3.23), and lack of vitality (OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.00-2.11). Discussion According to Karasek-Theorell's theoretical model, high demands, low control and low social support (the combination of these factors brought together the work of psychiatrists, psychologists and residents) this condition represents the greatest risk to health. Clinical professionals are treated disrespectfully, have no appreciation; causing an effort/reward imbalance in their work. Our results are consistent with research conducted with the same instrument in Sweden, Denmark, Serbia, Germany and Spain. These articles found that psychiatrists and psychologists are exposed to high emotional demands. In contrast a high quality management shows clear relationship to mental well-being, with high vitality and acceptable levels of stress. Our findings show that low social support from managers, increase psychosocial risks and stress findings which are consistent with a Chilean study. Although most participants (except residents) have an acceptable job safety almost eight of every ten respondents claimed to be quite concerned about possible changes or delays in salary, or requiring a second job. Security at work is a fundamental aspect of the model of effort-reward-balance. Lack of this characteristic has a negative impact on human health. The human rights organization in Latin America (HR), found that 33% of latino workers expressed "anxiety" because of job insecurity, furthermore recognized the relationship between job insecurity and an increase in cancer and depression. Latino workers seem to be the most affected by new global order, where employment is based on the informal economy. A poll by the Washington Post, Kaiser Family Foundation and Harvard University affirmed that 33% of latinos expressed "anxiety" by job insecurity, compared with 22% of Afro-American and 20% of white people. Complications in health and life prognosis for these workers and their productivity, affects directly the quality care of the patients, beyond production costs. The Chilean analysis concluded that is necessary to give special attention to health sector working population due to the importance of their work. In conclusion, our results suggest that high emotional demands coupled with a poor quality of leadership, characterized by a highly hierarchical power structure, with low esteem, lack of support and unfair treatment was associated with mental distress, and behavioral symptoms of stress and lack of vitality. The total of these deficiencies and their interaction could potentially cause an effort / reward imbalance in clinician work. From the standpoint of prevention, it is about working there; where the exposures have been identified. The risk factors such as stress need to be controlled from its source: toxic management. It seems relevant to include our proposals, in order to improve organization culture and create healthier environments for the staff, so we recommend: 1) A strategic program to protect health of the hospital staff. 2) To assess and reward the efforts, accomplishments, contributions, results and not permanence. 3) Assign a fair wage according to their preparation and the functions performed. 4) It is necessary that managers and middle managers solve conflict well, plan their job correctly and be able to establish proper communication channels with their subordinates. 5) Promote labor stability. 6) Flexible hours, according to the needs of people and not just production. 7) Working conditions should provide development opportunities and the tasks must be varied and meaningful. 8) Promote teamwork, encourage social support and avoid competition. 9) Strengthen the esteem and recognition, including a promotion plan in terms of expectations of each employee. 10) Eliminate highly hierarchical power structures.

El objetivo de esta investigación fue evaluar los riesgos asociados a las formas nocivas de la organización del trabajo, que unidas a ciertas exigencias psicosociales coadyuvan en la génesis del malestar mental, la falta de vitalidad, el estrés y la insatisfacción laboral de los psiquiatras, psicólogos y residentes del Hospital Psiquiátrico Infantil (HPI). Material y métodos El diseño del estudio fue observacional, transversal y descriptivo. Instrumento. El Cuestionario Psicosocial de Copenhague (The Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire CoPsoQ). El instrumento original de origen danés fue adaptado y validado en España, mostrando tener validez y fiabilidad contrastada, con a de Cronbach (0.66 a 0.92) e índices de Kappa (0.69 a 0.77). Resultados Participaron 111 profesionistas, de los cuales 30 son psiquiatras, 46 psicólogos y 35 médicos residentes. Se obtuvo una respuesta del 97%. La edad mínima del personal clínico se ubicó entre 26 a 35 y la máxima de 56 a 65 años, con una M= 40, DE=6.5 años. Asociación entre las exigencias psicosociales y las dimensiones de salud. Los problemas más apremiantes que presentó el personal clínico se explican a partir de tres ejes. Primer eje, de las exigencias psicológicas: las de tipo emocional tuvieron asociaciones estadísticamente significativas con el malestar mental (RP 3.67, IC95% 1.2810.01), con los síntomas conductuales (RP 3.59, IC95% 1.28-10.06) y cognitivos del estrés (RP 2.15, IC95% 1.00-5.12) así como con la falta de vitalidad (RP 1.78, IC95% 1.01-3.13). El segundo eje, de la calidad de liderazgo: mostró asociación estadísticamente significativa con: el malestar mental (RP 2.83, IC95% 1.19-6.76), con los síntomas cognitivos (RP 2.33, IC95% 1.00-5.60) y los conductuales del estrés (RP 2.24, IC95% 1.06-4.75) y con la falta de vitalidad (RP 1.65, IC95% 1.06-4.75). El escaso apoyo social por parte de los jefes, mostró asociación estadísticamente significativa con la insatisfacción laboral (RP 3.08, IC95% 1.41-6.73), la falta de vitalidad (RP 1.41, IC95% 1.12-1.78) y el malestar mental (RP 1.39, IC95% 1.071.81). Dentro del segundo eje de análisis, la falta de previsibilidad mostró asociación estadísticamente significativa con: el malestar mental (RP 2.33, IC95% 1.40-3.88), con los síntomas conductuales (RP 2.11, IC95% 1.31-3.41) y con los síntomas cognitivos del estrés (RP 2.07, IC95% 1.19-3.61), así como con la falta de vitalidad (RP 1.63, IC95% 1.17-2.29). Tercer eje, del equilibrio esfuerzo-recompensa: se observó asociación estadísticamente significativa entre la inseguridad laboral y todas las dimensiones de salud (síntomas conductuales del estrés (RP 1.97, IC95% 1.14-3.41); falta de vitalidad (RP 1.94, IC95% 1.23-3.07); malestar mental (RP 1.73, IC95% 1.04-2.88) y síntomas cognitivos del estrés (RP 1.39, IC 95% 1.12-1.72). Sin embargo, la asociación de mayor fuerza se observó entre la inseguridad y la insatisfacción laboral (RP 7.65, IC95% 1.09-53.75). Por lo que se refiere a la falta de estima, ésta se asoció en forma significativa con el malestar mental (RP 2.11, IC 95% 1.12-3.95), con los síntomas conductuales del estrés (RP 1.82, IC95% 1.03-3.23) y con la falta de vitalidad (RP 1.42, IC95% 1.00-2.11). Discusión La existencia de la organización nociva en el hospital se explica por medio del modelo demanda-control-apoyo social, en donde los clínicos se exponen a una alta demanda emocional, falta de control y autonomía en el trabajo, aunado a un bajo apoyo social. Esta condición representa la situación de mayor riesgo para su salud. La carencia de respeto, la falta de reconocimiento y el trato injusto podrían ser el origen de un desequilibrio en el esfuerzo-recompensa del trabajo clínico. La pobre calidad de liderazgo, caracterizada por una estructura organizacional y de poder altamente jerarquizada, sumada a la falta de apoyo social, a la inseguridad laboral y a la falta de previsibilidad están afectando de forma muy importante la salud mental de los clínicos del HPI al crear un clima organizacional negativo que contribuye al ausentismo, a la baja productividad y muy probablemente perturba la calidad de la atención a los pacientes. Es necesario, por esto, proteger la integridad mental del personal del hospital.

OBJETIVO: Investigar a associação entre desequilíbrio esforços-recompensas no trabalho e sintomas depressivos em trabalhadores de linhas elétricas de alta tensão. MÉTODOS: Estudo de corte transversal realizado em 158 trabalhadores de uma empresa de energia elétrica no Nordeste do Brasil. As dimensões do modelo esforço-recompensa (ERI) constituíram as variáveis independentes principais e a variável resposta foi depressão, medida pela escala Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D). Os dados foram analisados com técnicas de regressão logística múltipla. RESULTADOS: Trabalhadores no grupo de baixa recompensa apresentaram prevalência de depressão 6,2 vezes maior em relação àqueles no grupo de alta recompensa. A prevalência de depressão foi 3,3 vezes maior entre os trabalhadores em condição de desequilíbrio esforço-recompensa do que entre aqueles em situação de equilíbrio. CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência de depressão estava fortemente associada às dimensões de esforços e recompensas presentes no trabalho dos eletricitários.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between effort-reward imbalance and depressive symptoms among workers in high voltage power lines. METHODS: A cross-sectional study among 158 workers from an electric power company in Northeast Brazil. The main independent variables were the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model (ERI) dimensions and the main dependent variable was the prevalence of depression, as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Data were analyzed by multiple logistic regression techniques. RESULTS: The group of low reward workers presented a depression prevalence rate 6.2 times greater than those in the high reward group. The depression prevalence rate was 3.3 greater in workers in the situation of imbalanced effort-reward than in those in effort-reward equilibrium. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of depression was strongly associated with psychosocial factors present in the work of electricity workers.

OBJETIVO: Investigar a associação entre desequilíbrio esforços-recompensas no trabalho e sintomas depressivos em trabalhadores de linhas elétricas de alta tensão. MÉTODOS: Estudo de corte transversal realizado em 158 trabalhadores de uma empresa de energia elétrica no Nordeste do Brasil. As dimensões do modelo esforço-recompensa (ERI) constituíram as variáveis independentes principais e a variável resposta foi depressão, medida pela escala Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D). Os dados foram analisados com técnicas de regressão logística múltipla. RESULTADOS: Trabalhadores no grupo de baixa recompensa apresentaram prevalência de depressão 6,2 vezes maior em relação àqueles no grupo de alta recompensa. A prevalência de depressão foi 3,3 vezes maior entre os trabalhadores em condição de desequilíbrio esforço-recompensa do que entre aqueles em situação de equilíbrio. CONCLUSÕES: A prevalência de depressão estava fortemente associada às dimensões de esforços e recompensas presentes no trabalho dos eletricitários.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association between effort-reward imbalance and depressive symptoms among workers in high voltage power lines. METHODS: A cross-sectional study among 158 workers from an electric power company in Northeast Brazil. The main independent variables were the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model (ERI) dimensions and the main dependent variable was the prevalence of depression, as measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale. Data were analyzed by multiple logistic regression techniques. RESULTS: The group of low reward workers presented a depression prevalence rate 6.2 times greater than those in the high reward group. The depression prevalence rate was 3.3 greater in workers in the situation of imbalanced effort-reward than in those in effort-reward equilibrium. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of depression was strongly associated with psychosocial factors present in the work of electricity workers.

Este artigo busca identificar os modelos de arquiteturas organizacionais que estão sendo adotados por empresas do setor elétrico brasileiro para gerenciar o programa de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento [P&D] instituído a partir da Lei n. 9.991 (2000) e operacionalizado pela Agência Nacional de Energia Elétrica [ANEEL]. Adotaram-se as cinco dimensões propostas pelo Modelo Estrela de Galbratih (1995): estratégia, estrutura, processos, pessoas e sistemas de recompensa para analisar como as concessionárias de energia elétrica estão estruturando suas áreas de P&D. Foram pesquisadas quatro concessionárias de energia elétrica, por meio de análise documental e entrevistas; os resultados indicam a existência, basicamente, de dois modelos de arquiteturas para estruturação da área de P&D dessas empresas. O primeiro apresenta-se mais estruturado, em termos do planejamento de P&D, e é gerenciado por meio de estrutura organizacional informal e enxuta. Os investimentos para treinamento são modestos, bem como os incentivos de participação. O segundo identifica a existência de áreas formais para gerenciamento do programa, embora as estratégias para investimentos em P&D não se encontrem bem definidas. Novos estudos que possibilitem avaliar a relevância do modelo de arquitetura organizacional adotado para o desempenho das carteiras de projetos são pertinentes e relevantes.

This article aims to evaluate the organizational architecture models currently being adopted by the Brazilian electrical energy companies to properly manage the Program of Research and Development [R&D], instituted by Law 9.991 (2000) and made operational by the Brazilian Electrical Energy Agency [ANEEL]. As a conceptual research model, the five dimensions proposed by Galbratih's Star Model (1995) were used: strategy, structure, processes, people and reward systems. The research was conducted with four concessionaries of electrical energy through interviews and documental analysis, and the results indicate the existence, basically, of two models of architecture for the structuring of the R&D area. The first model is found in companies that use a more structured planning of R&D, even though they manage it through an informal and small organizational structure. The investments made in training are relatively few, as are incentives for participation. In the second group, there is an indication of the existence of formal areas for the management of the program, even though the strategies for investing in R&D have yet to be well defined. New studies that allow for the evaluation of effectiveness of organizational architectures concerning the performance of the projects portfolio are pertinent and necessary.

Endocannabinoids are the endogenous ligands for the cannabinoid receptors type 1 and 2. These membrane receptors are responsible for the psychotropic effects of Cannabis Sativa, when bound to its active component known as (-)-Δ9-tetrahydro-cannabinol. Cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoids and the enzymes catalyzing their biosynthesis and degradation, constitute the endocannabinoid system (ECS), which has a remarkable role controlling energy balance, both at central nervous system and peripheral tissues. The ECS regulates food ingestion by stimulating a network of orexigenic neurons present in the hypothalamus and reinforcing motivation and reward to food consumption in the nucleus accumbens. Regarding peripheral tissues, this system controls lipid and glucose metabolism at different levels, reduces energy expenditure and leads energy balance to fat storage. Metabolic alterations, includ-ing excessive accumulation of abdominal fat, dyslipidaemia and hyperglicaemia, are suggested to be associated to a hyperactivated ECS. Since obesity is one of the major health problems in modern societies, in this review we discuss the role of the endocannabinoid system in metabolic pathways associated to control mechanisms of energy balance and its involvement in overweight and obesity. In addition, we also discuss therapeutic possibilities and emergent problems due to cannabinoid receptor type 1 antagonism utilized as treatment for such alterations.