Abstract The objective of this research is to show the results obtained from the correlation between the age of shop owners, the innovation implemented in their business models and the economic effects brought about by the covid-19 health crisis, in the municipality of Jerez, Zacatecas. We found that innovation is proportionally inverse to the age of shop owners, that the shop owners' age conditions to some degree the permanence their business in the face of the covid-19 pandemic and that older people are more vulnerable to an economic crisis fancing covid-19.

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación es mostrar los resultados obtenidos de la correlación entre la edad de los comerciantes, la innovación implementada en sus modelos de negocio y los efectos económicos que trajo consigo la crisis sanitaria por covid-19 en el municipio de Jerez, Zacatecas. Se encontró que la innovación es proporcionalmente inversa a la edad de los comerciantes y que la edad del comerciante condiciona en cierto grado la permanencia de su negocio ante la pandemia, así como que las personas de mayor edad son más vulnerables a una crisis económica frente al covid-19.

Small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are strategic to South African economic performance. Despite their strategic role in economic growth, South African construction SMEs are predominantly confronted with the problem of poor performance, which is partly due to poor productivity. This contributes to a negative outlook for construction and undermines its contribution to the nation's economy. This study determines essential strategies to help improve construction SMEs' productivity in South Africa. Qualitative data were collected from registered small and medium-sized construction organisations in South Africa, using a semi-structured interview approach. The research data were analysed, using content analysis. The study reported key strategies, including the need for proficiency at managerial and non-managerial levels, effective teamwork, and effective planning, to improve contractors' productivity. Although existing studies have widely reported major factors influencing contractors' productivity, there is still a shortage of research on SMEs' productivity, especially in South Africa. This research determines SMEs-specific productivity challenges and the interventions needed to improve productivity in the SME sector.

Klein en mediumgrootte ondernemings (KMO's) is strategies vir Suid-Afrikaanse ekonomiese prestasie. Ten spyte van hul strategiese rol in ekonomiese groei, word Suid-Afrikaanse konstruksie-KMO's oorwegend gekonfronteer met die probleem van swak prestasie, wat deels te wyte is aan swak produktiwiteit. Dit dra by tot 'n negatiewe vooruitsig vir konstruksie en ondermyn die bydrae daarvan tot die land se ekonomie. Hierdie studie bepaal noodsaaklike strategieë om konstruksie-KMO's se produktiwiteit in Suid-Afrika te help verbeter. Kwalitatiewe data is ingesamel vanaf geregistreerde klein en mediumgrootte konstruksie-organisasies in Suid-Afrika deur gebruik te maak van 'n semi-gestruktureerde onderhoudbenadering. Die navorsingsdata is ontleed met behulp van inhoudsanalise. Die studie het sleutelstrategieë wat die behoefte aan vaardigheid op bestuurs- en nie-bestuursvlakke, effektiewe spanwerk en effektiewe beplanning insluit, gerapporteer om kontrakteurs se produktiwiteit te verbeter. Alhoewel bestaande studies wyd gerapporteer het oor belangrike faktore wat kontrakteurs se produktiwiteit beïnvloed, is daar steeds 'n tekort aan navorsing oor KMO's se produktiwiteit, veral in Suid-Afrika. Hierdie navorsing bepaal KMO's-spesifieke produktiwiteitsuitdagings en die intervensies wat nodig is om produktiwiteit in die KMO-sektor te verbeter.

Resumo O objetivo principal do artigo é enriquecer os conceitos dos diagnósticos para o desenho de políticas públicas de juventude. A metodologia é qualitativa, voltada para o aprofundamento de ideias e conceitos, por meio da estratégia de análise de conteúdo. Nesse caso, busca-se analisar e aprofundar conceitualmente a concepção de juventude, Educação e trabalho, tomando como base o “Relatório de Perspectivas Econômicas da América Latina (OCDE/CAF/Cepal)”. Conclui-se que os conhecimentos reduzidos a competências, as propostas de formação reduzidas a programas de treinamento e a vida sócio-econômica reduzida ao ajuste entre a oferta e a demanda do mercado; são postos em discussão por meio de visões sobre políticas públicas de juventude integral ancoradas nos direitos dos jovens como cidadão, coletivo dinâmico e heterogêneo.

Abstract The main objective of the article is to enrich the conceptualizations of the diagnoses for the design of youth public policies. The methodology, qualitative, is oriented to deepen ideas and concepts, through the content analysis strategy. In this case, it seeks to analyze and conceptually deepen the conception of youth, Education and work, taking as a basis “The Latin American Economic Outlook Report (OECD/CAF/Eclac)”. The conclusion is that knowledge reduced to competencies, training proposals reduced to training programs, and socio-economic life reduced to the adjustment between market supply and demand, are put into discussion by views on public policies of integral youths anchored in the rights of young people as citizens, a dynamic and heterogeneous collective.

Resumen El artículo se plantea como objetivo principal enriquecer las conceptualizaciones de los diagnósticos para el diseño de políticas públicas de las juventudes. La metodología es de corte cualitativa orientada a profundizar en ideas y conceptos, a través de la estrategia de análisis del contenido. En este caso, se busca analizar y profundizar conceptualmente sobre la concepción de juventud, de Educación y trabajo, tomando como base “El Informe Perspectivas Económicas de América Latina (OCDE/CAF/Cepal) 1 ”. Se arriba a la conclusión de que los saberes reducidos a competencias, las propuestas de formación reducidas a programas de capacitación, y la vida socio-económica reducida al ajuste entre oferta y demanda del mercado; son puestos en discusión por miradas sobre políticas públicas de las juventudes integrales ancladas en los derechos de los jóvenes como colectivo ciudadano, dinámico y heterogéneo.

Resumo O presente artigo oferece uma análise de economia política da pandemia e das suas consequências socioeconómicas. Recusando a ideia de exogeneidade da crise, propõe-se encontrar as causas da pandemia na presente organização da economia internacional, liberalizada, financeirizada e dominada por empresas multinacionais monopolistas. É também partindo desta caracterização que se escrutinam alguns mecanismos causais por detrás da crise económica global e dos inéditos recursos mobilizados pelos Estados no combate a esta crise, ainda que assimetricamente distribuídos entre o centro e a periferia capitalistas. Através da análise das possíveis consequências desta crise, em particular no que diz respeito à reconfiguração estatal, recusa-se a ideia de fim do neoliberalismo e procuram-se pistas para a sua eventual superação.

Résumé Cet article propose une analyse d’économie politique de la pandémie et de ses conséquences socio-économiques. Rejetant l’idée d’exogénéité de la crise, on propose de trouver les causes de la pandémie dans l’organisation actuelle de l’économie internationale, libéralisée, financiarisée et dominée par des multinationales monopolistiques. C’est aussi sur la base de cette caractérisation que sont passés au crible certains mécanismes causals de la crise économique mondiale et les ressources sans précédent mobilisées par les États pour combattre cette crise, bien qu’asymétriquement réparties entre le centre et la périphérie capitalistes. À travers l’analyse des conséquences possibles de cette crise, notamment en matière de reconfiguration de l’État, l’idée de la fin du néolibéralisme est rejetée et des indices sont recherchés pour son éventuel dépassement.

Abstract This article offers a political economy analysis of the pandemic and its socioeconomic implications. It aims to identify the causes of the pandemic in the current structure of the international economy, defined by its liberalized and financialized outlook and growing monopolist multinational corporations. It is from this standpoint that some of the mechanisms behind the present crisis are pinpointed. The scale and scope of the States intervention to fight the economic crisis is scrutinized, whilst pointing to the unequal capabilities between center and peripheral countries. Through a tentative inquiry of the crisis’ consequences, it is argued that neoliberalism has not ended, albeit new signs may aid in its eventual routing.

The re-enactment of the context and the purposes of past laws obviates the resort to "principled forgetfulness", since South African law is recalled in a manner that is connected to its morality. The discussion of officially recorded policy vis-ä-vis Africans at the mines and other relevant spaces reveals that from its formation the Chamber of Mines had a strict policy of keeping African wages particularly low. Sanctioned policy and practices facilitated this outlook in the implementation of labour law. Additionally, unsatisfactory employment conditions routinely short-changed workers of the amounts due. This evaluation demonstrates how the prohibiting of Africans from reaping monetary advancement from the profits of mining was the cornerstone of economic development and attainment of prosperity by white society in South Africa. The Industrial Conciliation Act 11 of 1924 is notable for banishing Africans from recognition as employees who could engage in collective bargaining and served to further impair the already precarious position of African workers. Ironically, though Africans could not bargain, the determinations of industrial councils were permitted to change their employment conditions in order to maintain the priviledge of white workers. Under this regime African wages remained extremely low, in line with supposed tribal needs, while the "civilised" community reaped far greater benefits. The effects of this were evident in the heightened economic pressure experienced by African workers and their dependants. By 1944 there had been hardly any increase in the wages of African mineworkers, but the working conditions had become more onerous. Invariably the rationale was that an improvement in the wages of African workers would have the effect of dislocating established economic processes, thereby impeding the welfare of the colony. This was the rationale despite evidence clearly showing that the wages of Africans were so inadequate that they resulted in the widespread hardship and worsening impoverishment of African communities. This retelling of the historical law, coupled with prevailing attitudes that presented African workers as peripheral in the larger tale of productivity, has the objective and effect of rearranging the narrative somewhat. Undoubtedly the story of Africans is still being told through the colonial blueprint of labour and its management, but by reading the law focussing on Africans, rather than the community it was intended to serve, the noticeable spillage of vexed African presence disturbs the integrity of the law. A shift in consciousness is likely to occur as the counter-narrative, hidden within the hegemony, animates. Joining efforts to decolonise endorsed accounts of the past, this contribution reveals how paid labour stands out as a mechanism of oppression rather than an antidote to the proclaimed backwardness of Africans.

Abstract The main objective of this article is to isolate the key factors that need to be taken into account in a prospective analysis of the Colombo-Venezuelan border. In the first place, the links between prospective analysis and political risk assessment are examined. Next both are related to the features which are relevant to their study. Next, methodological issues are discussed based on a review of historical and current academic studies, press reports and case studies built on the results of focus groups and interviews with experts. These materials are used to develop a methodology, build indicators and establish plausible scenarios. In third place, conceptual and practical issues regarding the border are revised, including, foremost, Colombian policies regarding this topic. In the fourth place, economic, political and military risks in the Colombo-Venezuelan border are assessed as well as the particular challenges the border context poses for these aspects. Likewise the impact of COVID-19 need also to be taken into account in any realistic risk calculations to be made in these regions. Finally, the theoretical approach of the article is used to examine three future potential scenarios: one possible, one probable and one desirable. The conclusion is drawn that, due to current developments in the border, migration and crime are expected to increase, while the economic outlook will worsen in the short term.

Resumen Identificar los principales elementos que deben ser considerados en un análisis prospectivo de la frontera colombo-venezolana constituye el objetivo principal de este artículo. Primero, se examina el vínculo de la prospectiva con el riesgo político y con los factores que inciden en su análisis. En segundo lugar, se plantean los aspectos metodológicos basados en la revisión de análisis académicos históricos y coyunturales, de artículos de prensa, y estudios de caso empíricos mediante grupos focales y entrevistas a expertos en el tema para la construcción de indicadores, métodos y escenarios. En tercer lugar, se revisan los elementos conceptuales y prácticos de la frontera, y de las políticas públicas colombianas referentes al tema. En cuarto lugar, se examina el riesgo político, económico y militar en la frontera colombo-venezolana y las particularidades de los ámbitos territoriales elegidos para este estudio, asimismo se plantea la COVID-19 como un factor a tener en cuenta en el análisis de estas regiones. Por último, se analizan tres escenarios: uno posible, uno probable y uno deseable. Se concluye que a corto plazo un escenario probable es el aumento de la migración, las actividades delictivas y el deterioro de la situación económica, todo con el fin de evidenciar, bajo una estructura teórica, las dinámicas existentes en las regiones fronterizas.

ABSTRACT The COVID-19 pandemic has brought a variety of problems that have affected social, business, work and interpersonal relationships, among others. The objective of this article is to analyze the economic perspective that is causing this phenomenon in the students of the accounting career of UNIANDES Santo Domingo, for which a survey was applied by mail to a total of 145 students of the face-to-face and blended learning modalities. 91 participants responded, mentioning among the most relevant that most of them are economically active, have evidenced the elimination of jobs, reduction of salaries, over-indebtedness, and resounding changes in lifestyle and are concerned about the monetary crisis because I could suspend the continuity of their studies.

RESUMEN La pandemia por COVID-19 ha traído una diversidad de problemas que han afectado las relaciones sociales, empresariales, labores, interpersonales, entre otros. El objetivo del presente artículo es analizar la perspectiva económica que está causando este fenómeno en los estudiantes de la carrera contabilidad de UNIANDES Santo Domingo, para lo cual se aplicó una encuesta por correo a un total de 145 estudiantes de las modalidades presencial y semipresencial se obtuvo respuestas de 91 participantes quienes mencionan entre lo más relevante que la mayoría son económicamente activos, han evidenciado la eliminación de plazas laborales, reducción de salarios, sobreendeudamiento, y cambios rotundos en el estilo de vida y les genera preocupación la crisis monetaria porque pude suspender la continuidad de sus estudios.

ABSTRACT Introduction: The health economy relationship has played a relevant role in the times of COVID-19. This conference had three. Objective: Describe the relationship between health and the economy, during COVID-19. Contents: The relationship between the Economy and Health has been revealed during the unprecedented crisis that COVID-19 has generated, most of the countries have been affected, within these sectors of the economy have been damaged in a general way. The deterioration in the health of people affected by the pandemic and the great challenges that health systems have assumed have had an impact on the contraction of economies, with poverty implications for many populations. The most affected countries have been the poorest, it is still early to express the economic amount of damage caused by this disease. Cuba, at the time of COVID-19, has presented a difficult economic outlook due to internal and external causes, the country has adopted new economic measures. The political will, the strength of the National Health System, the experience in the control of epidemics, the intersectoral action, the health planning integrated into a program for the rational use of resources, the active response of the first level of care and social participation , have been factors that contributed to an effective response to COVID-19.

RESUMEN Introducción: La relación economía salud ha jugado papel relevante en los tiempos de la COVID-19. Esta conferencia tuvo tres. Objetivo: Describir la relación entre salud y economía, durante la COVID-19. Contenidos: La relación Economía y Salud se ha puesto de manifiesto durante la crisis sin precedentes que ha generado la COVID-19, la mayor parte de los países han sido afectados, dentro de estos los sectores de la economía se han dañado de manera general. El deterioro de la salud de las personas afectadas por la pandemia y los grandes retos que han asumido los sistemas sanitarios han incidido en la contracción de las economías, con implicaciones de pobreza para muchas poblaciones. Los países más afectados han sido los más pobres, todavía es temprano para expresar el monto económico del daño de esta enfermedad. Cuba, al momento de la COVID-19, ha presentado un panorama económico difícil debido a causas internas y externas, el país ha adoptado nuevas medidas económicas. La voluntad política, la fortaleza del Sistema Nacional de Salud, la experiencia en el control de epidemias, la acción intersectorial, la planificación sanitaria integrada a un programa por el empleo racional de recursos, la activa respuesta del primer nivel de atención y la participación social, han sido factores que contribuyeron a una respuesta efectiva frente a la COVID-19.

ABSTRACT Four decades have passed since the international community initiated the coordination of both economic and legal policies to promote a global transition towards sustainability, but the outlook is totally frustrating and discouraging, since environmental deterioration is still progressing in steps and the proliferation of environmental technicians and international conservation treaties, the exponential increase of environmental regulations and standards, the continuous expansion of the number of protected areas, an increasing green labeling of the products of sale, and a important increase in social sensitivity on the ecological problem. In addition, five decades have passed since the beginning of the conservation era, however the ecological deterioration continues to accelerate, so it is logical to think that something is failing in the environmental policies adopted so far by each state.

RESUMEN Han transcurrido cuatro décadas desde que la comunidad internacional dio inicio a la coordinación de políticas tanto económicas como jurídicas que permitan impulsar una transición global hacia la sostenibilidad, sin embargo el panorama es totalmente frustrante y desalentador, ya que actualmente el deterioro ambiental sigue avanzando a pasos agigantados en paralelo a la proliferación de técnicos ambientales y de tratados internacionales de conservación, al aumento exponencial de las regulaciones y los estándares ambientales, a la expansión continua del número de áreas protegidas, a un creciente etiquetado verde de los productos de compraventa, y a un importante aumento de la sensibilidad social sobre la problemática ecológica. Además, han transcurrido cinco décadas desde el comienzo de la era conservacionista, sin embargo, el deterioro ecológico sigue acelerándose, por lo que es lógico pensar que algo está fallando en las políticas ambientales adoptadas hasta el momento por cada estado.

ABSTRACT This article focuses on the issue of fiscal sustainability and its importance in Cuba's current program of economic transformations. After a quick review of the international debate on the subject, it analyzes the fiscal outlook in Cuba in the period from 1990 to 2018, highlighting the high degree of fiscal vulnerability that the Cuban economy suffers today and the tensions that it will have to face in the coming years. In the last session, the impact of monetary unification on the fiscal outlook is discussed. It is concluded that fiscal sustainability will be key in the coming years. To this end, the authorities will have to improve macroeconomic management, but also transform the institutional and economic contexts to overcome the current situation of economic stagnation and fiscal vulnerability.

RESUMEN Este artículo se centra en el tema de la sostenibilidad fiscal y su importancia en el actual programa de transformaciones económicas de Cuba. Después de una rápida revisión del debate internacional sobre el tema, se analiza el panorama fiscal en Cuba en el período de 1990 a 2018, poniendo en evidencia el alto grado de vulnerabilidad fiscal que hoy padece la economía cubana y las tensiones que tendrá que enfrentar en los próximos años. En la última sesión se discute acerca del impacto de la unificación monetaria sobre el panorama fiscal. Se concluye que en los próximos años la sostenibilidad fiscal será clave. Para ello, las autoridades deberán mejorar la gestión macroeconómica, pero también transformar los contextos institucionales y económicos que permitan superar la situación actual de estancamiento económico y vulnerabilidad fiscal.

Resumo O objetivo principal do artigo é enriquecer os conceitos dos diagnósticos para o desenho de políticas públicas de juventude. A metodologia é qualitativa, voltada para o aprofundamento de ideias e conceitos, por meio da estratégia de análise de conteúdo. Nesse caso, busca-se analisar e aprofundar conceitualmente a concepção de juventude, Educação e trabalho, tomando como base o “Relatório de Perspectivas Econômicas da América Latina (OCDE/CAF/Cepal)”. Conclui-se que os conhecimentos reduzidos a competências, as propostas de formação reduzidas a programas de treinamento e a vida sócio-econômica reduzida ao ajuste entre a oferta e a demanda do mercado; são postos em discussão por meio de visões sobre políticas públicas de juventude integral ancoradas nos direitos dos jovens como cidadão, coletivo dinâmico e heterogêneo.

Abstract The main objective of the article is to enrich the conceptualizations of the diagnoses for the design of youth public policies. The methodology, qualitative, is oriented to deepen ideas and concepts, through the content analysis strategy. In this case, it seeks to analyze and conceptually deepen the conception of youth, Education and work, taking as a basis “The Latin American Economic Outlook Report (OECD/CAF/Eclac)”. The conclusion is that knowledge reduced to competencies, training proposals reduced to training programs, and socio-economic life reduced to the adjustment between market supply and demand, are put into discussion by views on public policies of integral youths anchored in the rights of young people as citizens, a dynamic and heterogeneous collective.

Resumen El artículo se plantea como objetivo principal enriquecer las conceptualizaciones de los diagnósticos para el diseño de políticas públicas de las juventudes. La metodología es de corte cualitativa orientada a profundizar en ideas y conceptos, a través de la estrategia de análisis del contenido. En este caso, se busca analizar y profundizar conceptualmente sobre la concepción de juventud, de Educación y trabajo, tomando como base “El Informe Perspectivas Económicas de América Latina (OCDE/CAF/Cepal) 1 ”. Se arriba a la conclusión de que los saberes reducidos a competencias, las propuestas de formación reducidas a programas de capacitación, y la vida socio-económica reducida al ajuste entre oferta y demanda del mercado; son puestos en discusión por miradas sobre políticas públicas de las juventudes integrales ancladas en los derechos de los jóvenes como colectivo ciudadano, dinámico y heterogéneo.

Abstract: Introduction: The demographic transition that Mexico is going through will impose great challenges on this nation, since it is projected that the number of older adults will increase significantly in the coming decades. The economic security of this age group is one of those challenges that could be faced through the financial planning that people have carried out at opportune moments throughout their lives. Method: This research is quantitative, cross-sectional, and correlational. Using four multiple linear regression models, the relationship between the expectations of financial planning for retirement, self-perceived financial knowledge for the retirement stage, clarity of financial goals in the retirement stage, future outlook and influence was analyzed. For this, the questionnaire designed by Koposko, Bojórquez, Pérez and Hershey were used, which consists of five latent variables measured through 16 items with a seven-point Likert scale and which was previously validated in the context in which it was applied in this research. The questionnaire was applied to a non-probabilistic sample of parents of new university students from the departments of Industrial Engineering and Economic-Administrative Sciences of the National Technological Institute of Mexico in Celaya. Results: Expectations of financial planning for retirement depend on self-perceived financial knowledge and this, in turn, on the clarity of financial goals in the retirement stage. On the other hand, the prospect of the future determines the clarity of financial goals in the retirement stage. The influence of the parents of the participants in this research, on the other hand, positively impacts the perspective of the future. Discussion or Conclusion: Some of the findings of this research coincide with the existing literature, however, it is necessary to deepen the study of this model in different contexts and with other age groups so that it is possible to contribute to the promotion of financial planning for retirement. considering the influence that fathers and mothers exert in this regard, since in this way economic security could be promoted in old age.

Resumen: Introducción: La transición demográfica por la que está atravesando México le impondrá a esta nación grandes desafíos, ya que se proyecta que el número de adultos mayores aumentará significativamente en las próximas décadas. La seguridad económica de ese grupo etario es uno de esos desafíos que podría ser enfrentado a través de la planeación financiera que las personas hayan realizado en momentos oportunos a lo largo de su vida. Método: Esta investigación es cuantitativa, transversal y correlacional. Mediante cuatro modelos de regresión lineal múltiple se analizó la relación entre las expectativas de la planeación financiera para el retiro, el conocimiento financiero autopercibido para la etapa de retiro, claridad de las metas financieras en la etapa de retiro, la perspectiva del futuro y la influencia de los padres. Para ello se empleó el cuestionario diseñado por Koposko, Bojórquez, Pérez y Hershey el cual consta de cinco variables latentes medidas a través de 16 ítems con una escala Likert de siete puntos y que se validó anteriormente en el contexto en el que se realizó esta investigación. El cuestionario se aplicó a una muestra no probabilística de padres de familia de estudiantes universitarios de nuevo ingreso de los departamentos de Ingeniería Industrial y Ciencias Económico-Administrativas del Tecnológico Nacional de México en Celaya. Resultados: Las expectativas de la planeación financiera para el retiro dependen del conocimiento financiero autopercibido y este, a su vez, de la claridad de las metas financieras en la etapa de retiro. Por otro lado, la perspectiva del futuro determina la claridad de las metas financieras en la etapa de retiro. La influencia de los padres de los participantes de esta investigación, por su parte, impacta de forma positiva en la perspectiva del futuro. Discusión o Conclusión: Algunos de los hallazgos de esta investigación coinciden con la literatura existente, sin embargo, es necesario profundizar en el estudio de este modelo en diferentes contextos y con otros grupos etarios de manera que sea posible contribuir en el fomento de la planeación financiera para el retiro, considerando la influencia que en ese aspecto ejercen los padres y madres de familia ya que de esa manera se podría impulsar la seguridad económica en la vejez.

Abstract Spin off companies refer to firms created by university laboratories, the generation of this type of companies has a pull effect through the diffusion, imitation and innovation of the company even at long-term for economic development. In order to generate this type of business, an articulated set of legislative, cultural and financing, instruments are required. In addition, various actors must be involved; aligned to achieve local development. The ability of universities to create spin off companies depends on their background and favorable regional conditions. This research aims to identify the main challenges during spawn university spin off companies in Mexico, thus, it is necessary explore the consequences and analyze key factors of entrepreneurial university scheme, at the end of this paper illustrates Mexico’s outlook and the conclusions. There are four major challenges that universities faces: first, the lack of clear and effective internal regulations and paperwork processes for intellectual property management and proper commercialization strategies for technological developments; second, is not hiring specialists for Technology Transfer Offices at Higher Education Institutes (HEI) and Public Research Centres (PRC) to generate capabilities; third, inherent complexities of business training and entrepreneurship education, to enhance management competences and business venture, and fourth, decision-maker authority at HEIs and PRCs must develops an enabling environment as governance mechanisms that support and prioritize such processes, so that could be translated into punctual actions with concrete results.

Resumen El siguiente artículo busca exponer de manera general y resumida los puntos más relevantes de la explicación acerca del origen del capitalismo en Occidente tanto para Marx como para Weber. A partir de esta exposición se dilucida la conexión entre ambos análisis en lo que concierne a la época en la que se origina el capitalismo y a la mirada fundamentalmente económica que gobierna las explicaciones de ambos autores. Estos, sin embargo, al incorporar elementos políticos y religiosos en sus análisis, problematizan aquellas lecturas reduccionistas que los separan a partir de las posturas materialistas y económicas por parte de Marx, así como las espirituales e ideológicas por parte de Weber. A continuación, se hace un análisis de la relación entre el capitalismo y su forma política correspondiente, es decir, del Estado moderno y del ethos económico de esta forma de Estado, (burgués para Marx, racional-legal para Weber) para dar un comentario acerca de las diferentes posturas políticas de estos autores en lo que concierne a la valoración del capitalismo burgués en Occidente.

Abstract The following article aims to explain, in general terms, some of the most relevant issues regarding the origins of Western capitalism, according to Karl Marx and Max Weber. In this exposition, the connection between both analyses is clear in terms of the inception of capitalism and the fundamentally economic outlook that governs both authors ' points of view. This connection, despite the inclusion of political and religious themes in both their analyses, problematics the reductionist readings that divide them based on the materialistic and economic postures of Marx, and spiritual and ideological postures of Weber. In addition, the relationship between capitalism and its correspondent political form is analyzed, that is to say, the modern state and economic ethos of this kind of state (bourgeois, according to Marx, and rational-legal according to Weber), in order to make a comment about the different political positions of these two authors regarding the valuation of bourgeois capitalism in the West.

Resumo O artigo a seguir busca expor de maneira geral e resumida os pontos mais relevantes da explicação acerca da origem do capitalismo em Ocidente tanto para Marx quanto para Weber. A partir desta exposição, diluáda-se a conexão entre ambas as análises no que concerne à época na que se origina o capitalismo e o olhar fundamentalmente econômico que governa as explicações de ambos os autores; que, no entanto, ao incorporar elementos políticos e religiosos em suas análises, problematizam aquelas leituras reduccionistas que os separam a partir de posturas materialistas e econômicas por parte de Marx, e espirituais e ideológicas pelo lado de Weber. A continuação, se faz uma análise da relação entre o capitalismo e sua forma de Estado, (burguês para Marx, racional-legal para Weber) para dar um comentário acerca das diferentes posturas políticas destes autores no que concerne à valoração do capitalismo burguês em ocidente.

The initial impact of the Covid-19 pandemic was felt through its life-threatening flu-like infections that caused the death of tens of thousands of people around the world, but an even more serious and enduring effect evolved from the lock-down strategies of governments to contain the infections. It caused mass disruptions in the social and economic life of nations and communities: people were isolated from friends, family and their recreation facilities, businesses went bankrupt, supply chains crumbled, and unemployment increased. The ultimate economic and social consequences ofthis policy-driven destruction of global systems are unfathomable. They confuse people, causing a feeling of hopelessness and incompetence in their search for solutions to the policy-initiated spillover problems they have to face. They are faced with an uncontrollable wave of change, the nature of which they can only try to understand, and which, it is hoped, will lead to a more desirable future outcome. When they reflected on the emergence of the pandemic, people suddenly became aware of a number of warnings issued since the 1990s about the likelihood of a Covid-19-type flu-like pandemic that would ravage the world. Why were these warnings ignored? Moreover, why did this pandemic become so utterly disruptive that people now struggle to find solutions to it? Three futurists at the international Centre for Post-normal Policy and Futures Studies describe the Covid-19 pandemic as a "perfect post-normal storm" in "post-normal times". This paper uses aspects of their research to explain the disruptive effect of the Covid-19 pandemic, applying them to the South African situation. The wave of disruptions that were caused by pandemic control is in essence complex systemic. It is very difficult to understand complex systemic change if traditional thinking and established systems of specialised knowledge (the so-called "cognitive homeland") are used. What is required is, first, to acknowledge a state of "invincible ignorance" in established thinking: an acknowledgement that established thinking must be replaced with new thinking. This requires an exploration of the "manufactured normalcy field", which refers to the thought systems that reaffirm normalcy despite major shifts in circumstances. Such an exploration covers, among other things, inquiries into the underpinnings of the "manufactured normalcy field", contrasting worldviews, paradigms, values, metaphors, and perspectives. The possible impact of "strange attractors" to guide a process of self-organisation in complex systemic change is also important to consider. Such "strange attractors" can emerge from information management, values management, heuristic learning designs which may usher in shifts in collective insights, paradigm shifts and new worldviews. South Africans are often reminded that Covid-19 created a new normal which requires them to adapt their outlook on life and their lifestyles. In fact, this country's pre-Covid-19 world was far from normal - since the 1990's South Africans have been living an unsettled life in an unsettled country. In other words, for thirty years they have been trapped in a state of limbo of post-normal times, the nature of which is described by the Centre for Post-normal Policy and Futures Studies as "an in-between period where the old ways are dying and new ways have yet to be discovered".

Die Covid-19-pandemie is aanvanklik gekenmerk deur lewensbedreigende griepagtige infeksies, maar later het grootskaalse beheergedrewe ontwrigting die toon begin aangee. Die inperkingsmaatreëls vir infeksiebeheer het mense van hul werkplek, hul vriende, hul familie en hul ontspanningsgeriewe afgesny. Voorsieningskettings het verbrokkel, sakeondernemings het ineengeval en werkloosheid het toegeneem. Die uiteindelike maatskaplike en ekonomiese gevolge hiervan is vandag onpeilbaar en dit bring groot verwarring mee: dit is 'n golf van verandering wat nie beheer kan word nie; dit kan hoogstens verstaan en gestuur word. Deur terugskouing en nadenke het mense skielik begin besef dat daar reeds dekades gelede waarskuwings gepubliseer is oor die moontlikheid van ontwrigtende globale griepagtige pandemies. Waarom is tóé nie daarop ag geslaan nie? 'n Tweede vraag is waarom het hierdie pandemie die bestaande wereldorde sodanig ontwrig dat mense sukkel om oplossings daarvoor te vind. Drie toekomsnavorsers by die internasionale Centre for Post-normal Policy and Futures Studies beskryf die Covid-19-pandemie as 'n "perfekte postnormale storm" en voeg daarby dat ons vandag in "postnormale tye" leef. Hierdie artikel gebruik enkele aspekte van hulle navorsing om die Covid-19-ontwrigting te verklaar en ook van toepassing te maak op die Suid-Afrikaanse situasie. Die voortstuwende ontwrigting wat Covid-19-beheermaatreëls veroorsaak het, is in wese kompleks sistemies. Dit is 'n groot uitdaging om kompleks sistemiese verandering te verstaan vanuit gevestigde gespesialiseerde kennis ("kognitiewe tuisland"). Dit vereis eers die erkenning van "onoorwinlike onkunde" in die gevestigde denkpatrone en dat ou denke daarom vervang moet word deur nuwe denke: 'n eksplorasie in die denklandskappe van wêreldbeskouings, paradigmas, waardes, mites, metafore en perspektiewe. Die rol van geleide selforganisasie deur die bestuur van sogenaamde "vreemde aanlokkers" (strange attractors) word bespreek. In 'n maatskaplik-ekonomiese omvorming kan onder meer inligtingsbestuur, waardebestuur en leerprosesse aanleiding gee tot nuwe kollektiewe insigte, paradigmaskuiwe en nuwe wêreldbeskouings, wat as "vreemde aanlokkers" vir geleide selforganisasie kan dien.