Resumo: Este artigo examina o direito penal econômico brasileiro no contexto da sociedade de risco e à luz das teorias da Escola de Frankfurt. Analisa-se como a globalização e a interdependência econômica aumentam a complexidade dos crimes econômicos e como os conceitos críticos da Escola de Frankfurt, como racionalidade instrumental, alienação e dominação, podem ser aplicados para uma compreensão mais profunda desses crimes. O estudo inclui uma revisão bibliográfica, análise crítica e estudos de caso, com o objetivo de explorar as estruturas de poder que influenciam a regulação e a prática do direito penal econômico. Além disso, discute-se as perspectivas futuras e os desafios enfrentados pela legislação penal econômica em um mundo globalizado e interconectado.

Resumen: Este artículo examina el derecho penal económico brasileño en el contexto de la sociedad del riesgo y a la luz de las teorías de la Escuela de Frankfurt. Analiza cómo la globalización y la interdependencia económica aumentan la complejidad de los delitos económicos y cómo los conceptos críticos de la Escuela de Frankfurt, como la racionalidad instrumental, la alienación y la dominación, pueden aplicarse a una comprensión más profunda de estos delitos. El estudio incluye una revisión bibliográfica, un análisis crítico y estudios de casos con el objetivo de explorar las estructuras de poder que influyen en la regulación y la práctica del derecho penal económico. También analiza las perspectivas de futuro y los retos a los que se enfrenta el derecho penal económico en un mundo globalizado e interconectado.

Abstract: This article examines Brazilian economic criminal law within the context of the risk society, viewed through the theoretical framework of the Frankfurt School. It explores how globalization and economic interdependence increase the complexity of economic crimes, and how key Frankfurt School concepts -such as instrumental rationality, alienation, and domination- can be applied to gain a deeper understanding of these crimes. The study includes a literature review, critical analysis, and case studies to explore the power structures influencing the regulation and practice of economic criminal law. It also considers future perspectives and the challenges facing economic criminal law in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world.

Abstract In the 19th century, to protect private property, the legislator sometimes had to be wary of dishonest owners. Faced with the resurgence of certain financial crimes, swindles and other frauds, legislative policy oscillated between rigorous repression, intended as a deterrent but deemed excessive, and more flexible sentencing, to make criminal law more effective. The legislator’s main concern was to define the contours of the criminal figures that were developing as a result of the century’s economic and social changes. Among these, two stand out: the insurance swindler, an owner who sets fire to his own property in order to defraud his insurer, and the fraudulent banker, who makes undue profit from mismanagement. In trying to catch them, French law tries, with varying degrees of success, to meet society’s need to identify and punish criminal scams fairly.

Resumo No século XIX, para proteger a propriedade privada, o legislador teve por vezes de se precaver contra os proprietários desonestos. Perante o recrudescimento de certos crimes financeiros, burlas e outras fraudes, a política legislativa oscilou entre uma repressão rigorosa, destinada a dissuadir, mas considerada excessiva, e uma flexibilização das penas, para tornar o direito penal mais eficaz. Acima de tudo, o legislador procurou definir os contornos das figuras criminosas que se desenvolviam com as mudanças económicas e sociais do século. Entre elas, duas chamaram a sua atenção: o estelionatário de seguros, um proprietário que incen-deia a sua propriedade para roubar a sua seguradora, e o banqueiro fraudulento, que obtém um lucro indevido através de uma má gestão. Ao tentar combatê-los, o legislador tentou, com diferentes graus de sucesso, responder à necessidade da sociedade em identificar e punir de forma justa as fraudes criminosas.

Résumé Au xixe siècle, pour protéger la propriété privée, le législateur doit parfois se méfier du propriétaire, lorsqu’il est malhonnête. Face à la recrudescence de certains crimes financiers, escroqueries et autres fraudes, la politique législative oscille entre une répression rigoureuse, se voulant dissuasive mais jugée excessive, et une détermination des peines plus souples, afin de faire en sorte que le droit pénal soit plus efficace. Le législateur s’emploie surtout à cerner les contours des figures criminelles qui se développent à la faveur des mutations économiques et sociales du siècle. Parmi elles, deux attirent son attention : l’escroc à l’assurance, propriétaire qui incendie son propre bien pour arnaquer son assureur, et le banqueroutier frauduleux, qui fait un profit indu d’une mauvaise gestion. En s’efforçant de les saisir, il essaie, avec plus ou moins de succès, de répondre au besoin de la société d’identifier et de punir avec justesse les arnaques criminelles.

Resumen El objetivo del trabajo es exhibir la tendencia en la utilización de mujeres en la comisión de delitos económicos, con particular referencia al delito de evasión fiscal en la República Argentina. Para ello, metodológicamente, se recurre a la doctrina que ha analizado el problema, que aún es escasa, y principalmente a la jurisprudencia reciente de los Tribunales de dicho país. En los últimos años, los tribunales especializados en materia tributaria, penal tributaria y contenciosa tributaria destacan uno de los patrones socioculturales más perniciosos que existe, el uso de mujeres para delictivos en sentencias que se proponen ver los hechos con perspectiva de género. En general, estas maniobras se cometen con mujeres vulnerables y de bajos recursos, aunque también se advierte en mujeres sin esa condición, familiares -madres, esposas e hijas- de los autores materiales de los diferentes delitos. A modo de conclusión, en el trabajo se destaca que el fenómeno conocido como feminización de la pobreza lleva a mujeres a ser parte de maniobras delictivas que otros cometen en las que son utilizadas como accionistas o como presidentas de empresas creadas al único efecto de delinquir.

Resumo O objetivo do trabalho é exibir a tendência de utilização de mulheres na comissão de delitos econômicos, com referência particular ao delito de evasão fiscal na República Argentina. Para isso, metodologicamente, recorre-se à doutrina que analisou o problema, que ainda é escassa, e principalmente à jurisprudência recente dos Tribunais de dicho país. Com efeito, nos últimos anos os tribunais especializados em matéria tributária, tanto tributários penais como tributários de conteúdo, em sentenças que se propuseram uma visão dos hechos com perspectiva de gênero se destacam especialmente um dos patronos socioculturais mais perniciosos que existem que são o uso de mulheres com multas delitivas. Geralmente, se ele for levado a cabo com mulheres vulneráveis e de baixos recursos, mas também se aconselhará a mulheres sem suas condições, em geral familiares - mães, esposas e hijas - dos verdadeiros autores materiais dos diferentes delitos. Para concluir, no trabalho se destaca que o fenômeno conhecido como feminização da pobreza leva as mulheres a ser parte de maniobras delictivas que outras ocorrem nas que são utilizadas como acionistas ou como presidentes de empresas criadas como único efeito de delinquência.

Abstract The objective of this paper is to show the trend in the use of women in the commission of economic crimes, with particular reference to tax evasion in Argentina. To this end, methodologically, we resort to the doctrine that has analysed the problem, which is still scarce, and mainly to the recent jurisprudence of the Courts of that country. In fact, in recent years, the courts specialized in tax matters, both tax criminal and tax litigation, in judgments that have proposed a vision of the facts with a gender perspective, especially highlight one of the most pernicious socio-cultural patterns that exists, which is the use of women for criminal purposes. Generally, it is carried out with vulnerable and low-income women, although it is also observed in women without this condition, generally relatives - mothers, wives and daughters - of the real perpetrators of the different crimes.By way of conclusion, the paper highlights that the phenomenon known as the feminization of poverty leads women to be part of criminal maneuvers that other actors commit in which they are used as shareholders or as presidents of companies created for the sole purpose of committing crimes typical of economic crime.

Abstract: Following the economic complexity methodology introduced by Hausmann et al. (2013), this study establishes an order of crime evolution in Mexico. This ordering is based on the complexity of crimes, as determined by the capabilities required to commit them. According to the study, the least complex crimes in Mexico include robbery in collective public transport, robbery in individual transport, counterfeiting, and auto parts theft. On the other hand, the crimes characterized by the highest complexity involve organized crime, intentional and unintentional homicide, and the trafficking of minors. Furthermore, the analysis reveals that femicide and rape exhibit the most significant centrality or influence within the criminal network. According to the model, crimes associated with violence against women are those that most increase the probability of committing another crime. Therefore, targeted prevention efforts aimed at reducing femicide and rape may substantially impact overall levels of criminality in Mexico. This study also highlights the importance of addressing violence against women in designing crime prevention policies in Mexico. Moreover, the methodology adopted in this study can be reinterpreted as a spectral clustering algorithm and thus also contributes to the literature on machine learning applications in public policy design.

Resumen: Bajo la metodología de complejidad económica propuesta por Hausmann et al. (2013), esta investigación estableció un ordenamiento de la evolución del crimen en México. Este ordenamiento se basa en la complejidad de los delitos, determinada por las capacidades requeridas para cometerlos. De acuerdo con esta investigación, los delitos con menor complejidad en México incluyen el robo en transporte público colectivo, robo en transporte individual, falsificación y robo de autopartes. Por otro lado, los delitos con mayor complejidad están relacionados con el crimen organizado, el homicidio intencional e involuntario y el tráfico de menores. Además, el análisis reveló que el feminicidio y la violación exhiben la centralidad o influencia más significativa dentro de la red criminal. Según el modelo, los delitos asociados con la violencia contra las mujeres son los que más aumentan la probabilidad de cometer otro delito. Por lo tanto, los esfuerzos de prevención dirigidos a reducir el feminicidio y la violación pueden tener un impacto sustancial en los niveles generales de criminalidad en México. Este estudio también destaca la importancia de abordar la violencia contra las mujeres en el diseño de políticas de prevención del delito en México. Además, la metodología adoptada en este estudio puede ser reinterpretada como un algoritmo de agrupamiento espectral y, por lo tanto, también contribuye a la literatura sobre aplicaciones de aprendizaje automático en el diseño de políticas públicas.

The presence of immigrants in South Africa has led citizens to believe that migrants are responsible for increased crime rates in the country. This belief is a harmful stereotype that has no basis in reality, as most of the crimes are not committed by the migrants. This study explores the impact of socio-economic factors on crime rates by international migrants in South Africa from 2012 to 2017. Specifically, it focuses on examining the likelihood and association between two key variables: migrants with no formal education and crime, and unemployed migrants and crime. Through chi-square tests and multinomial regression, the study investigated whether these socioeconomic factors drove criminal behavior among the international migrant population. This study obtained data from secondary sources. The study's findings revealed that unemployment has an impact on migrants and crime rates in South Africa. The relationship showed a weak association, attributed to insufficient supporting evidence due to the low statistical power of educational status. The relationship proved to not have a strong association, lacking supporting evidence due to low statistical power on educational status. The level of education among migrants did not play a substantial role in influencing criminal behavior within the South African context. Other factors, such as social networks, cultural integration, and individual characteristics, might have a more prominent influence on criminal activities among migrants. However, addressing unemployment issues among international migrants in South Africa to mitigate the risk of criminal involvement is crucial. Policymakers and stakeholders should focus on developing effective strategies to promote employment opportunities, skills development, and social integration among migrant communities. By addressing these socio-economic factors, it may be possible to reduce crime rates and create a more inclusive society for both migrants and the host population in South Africa.

ABSTRACT Confronting economic crime takes on special importance in the Cuban context, because it damages the Cuban economy and puts the national social project at risk, by defrauding the trust of citizens in the institutions and in the personnel who work in them, which is why Preventive work is vital. The objective of the article was aimed at socializing the results of the initial diagnosis of the training on economic crime content for the staff of the Pinar del Río Provincial Passenger Transport and Cargo Company. The use of theoretical level methods, such as: historical-logical, analytical-synthetic, inductive-deductive, and empirical level methods such as: observation, interview, survey and document review allowed us to verify that the diagnosis of needs training of the contents of economic crime and its planning are insufficient. There are few spaces for scientific exchange, limited use of Information and Communications Technologies in training, imbalance between theoretical and practical content in training activities and low motivation of staff and specialists.

RESUMEN El enfrentamiento a la delincuencia económica toma especial importancia en el contexto cubano, porque daña la economía cubana y pone en riesgo el proyecto social nacional, al defraudar la confianza de la ciudadanía en las instituciones y en el personal que labora en ellas, por lo que la labor preventiva es vital. El objetivo del artículo se dirigió a socializar los resultados del diagnóstico inicial de la capacitación sobre contenidos de delincuencia económica de los cuadros de la Empresa Provincial de Transporte y Carga de Pasajeros de Pinar del Río. El empleo de métodos de nivel teórico, tales como: histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético, inductivo-deductivo, y de nivel empírico como: la observación, la entrevista, la encuesta y la revisión de documentos permitieron constatar que el diagnóstico de las necesidades de capacitación de los contenidos de la delincuencia económica y su planificación son insuficientes. Existen pocos espacios de intercambio científico, limitada utilización de las Tecnologías de la Información y las Comunicaciones en la capacitación, desbalance entre los contenidos teóricos y prácticos en las actividades de capacitación y escasa motivación de los cuadros y especialistas.

RESUMO O enfrentamento do crime económico assume especial importância no contexto cubano, porque prejudica a economia cubana e põe em risco o projecto social nacional, ao defraudar a confiança dos cidadãos nas instituições e no pessoal que nelas trabalha, razão pela qual o trabalho preventivo é vital. O objetivo do artigo foi socializar os resultados do diagnóstico inicial da formação sobre conteúdos de criminalidade econômica para o pessoal da Empresa Provincial de Transporte de Passageiros e Cargas de Pinar del Río. A utilização de métodos de nível teórico, tais como: histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético, indutivo-dedutivo, e métodos de nível empírico, tais como: observação, entrevista, levantamento e revisão documental permitiram-nos verificar que o diagnóstico das necessidades de formação dos conteúdos da criminalidade económica e o seu planeamento são insuficientes. Existem poucos espaços para intercâmbio científico, uso limitado de Tecnologias de Informação e Comunicação na formação, desequilíbrio entre conteúdos teóricos e práticos nas atividades de formação e baixa motivação de funcionários e especialistas.

RESUMEN La literatura teórica indica que el gasto en seguridad pública es importante para disuadir el comportamiento delictivo. Sin embargo, la mayoría de los estudios empíricos destinados a cuantificar la influencia del gasto en seguridad pública sobre la delincuencia no han podido establecer una relación estadísticamente significativa entre estas variables. En respuesta a esto, introdujimos un indicador novedoso que mide la asignación de los gastos de seguridad pública en cada región. Al probarlo para delitos de homicidio, robo y hurto de vehículos a través del estimador gmm-sys, encontramos evidencia estadística de que su ocurrencia influye en la conducta delictiva. Creemos que su inclusión aporta evidencia valiosa a la literatura económica, arrojando luz sobre el debate en torno a la eficiencia en la asignación de recursos del gasto en seguridad.

ABSTRACT Theoretical literature indicates that public security spending matters to deter criminal behavior. Nevertheless, most empirical studies aiming to quantify the influence of public security spending on crime have largely been unable to establish a statistically significant relationship between these variables. In response to this, we introduced a novel proxy that measures the rationing of public security expenditures in each region. When testing it for crimes of homicide, robbery, and theft of vehicles through the gmm-sys estimator, we found statistical evidence that its occurrence influences criminal behavior. We believe its inception contributes valuable evidence to the economic literature, shedding light on the debate surrounding the allocative efficiency of security spending resources.

Delação and colaboração premiada are terms used to describe legal practices which, although they are understood to be identical, have significant differences. The aim of the research on which this paper is based was to understand the genesis of these practices and the logic of the distinction between them, considering them as the result of social disputes mediated by professionals with unequal technical and social skills. It also sought to understand the objective meaning of the transformations of Brazilian criminal justice in neoliberal contemporaneity. The research originates in the characterization of the practices through the documentary examination of the criminal cases in which they were employed between 1990 and 2021, then analyzed from the point of view of the strategies of professional mobility and social legitimation of their practitioners in the face of the contemporary challenges of criminal justice. It was identified that the practices are part of efforts to modernize criminal justice based on internationally recognized best practice systems. It was found that the practice of colaboração premiada is structured as a private contract between equal parties and regulated by the principle of legal certainty. The practice of delação premiada, on the other hand, is structured by the asymmetry of power between the parties in the criminal process and regulated by the principle of uncertainty. It was concluded that the logic of differentiation between the practices corresponds to the logic of social distinction between their respective objects: economic elites and small-time drug dealers, as well as to the logic of professional distinction between their respective subjects: the groups of agents specialized in economic crimes and the vast contingent of agents who routinely carry out most of the work of criminal repression.

A delação e a colaboração premiada são termos utilizados para descrever práticas jurídicas que, embora sejam entendidas como idênticas, apresentam diferenças significativas. O objetivo da pesquisa em que esta comunicação é baseada foi compreender a gênese dessas práticas e a lógica da distinção entre elas, considerando-as como resultado de disputas sociais mediadas por profissionais com competências técnicas e sociais desiguais. Procurou-se também compreender o sentido objetivo das transformações da justiça penal brasileira na contemporaneidade neoliberal. A investigação origina-se na caracterização das práticas por meio do exame documental dos processos penais em que foram empregadas entre 1990 e 2021, então analisada a partir das estratégias de mobilidade profissional e legitimação social de seus praticantes diante dos desafios contemporâneos da justiça penal. Identificou-se que as práticas integram esforços de modernização da justiça penal com base em sistemas de best practices internacionalmente consagrados. Constatou-se que a prática da colaboração premiada é estruturada como um contrato privado entre partes iguais e regulada pelo princípio da segurança jurídica. Já a prática da delação premiada é estruturada pela assimetria de poder entre as partes do processo penal e regulada pelo princípio da incerteza. Concluiu-se que a lógica de diferenciação entre as práticas é correspondente à lógica da distinção social entre os seus respectivos objetos: elites econômicas e pequenos traficantes, bem como à lógica da distinção profissional entre os seus respectivos sujeitos: os grupos de agentes especializados em crimes econômicos e o vasto contingente de agentes que executam rotineiramente a maior parte do trabalho de repressão penal.

In this contribution, I attempt to show that Pat Carlen S (2013) argument, that the rehabilitation paradigm in the United Kingdom (UK) is redundant, is similarly applicable to the situation in postapartheid South Africa. My point of departure is therefore a shift of emphasis in attempting to apply theory from the developed world to the Third World. Since local conditions obviously differ from those in the UK, I focus my method, in particular, on a critical criminological evaluation of five aspects unique to the South African experience. This is within the context of Piketty's (2014) thesis that deepening inequality will continue exponentially, unless there is effective intervention (which seems unlikely). I consider this idea of possible paradigm redundancy along five axes which appear to be pertinent in criminal justice in the third decade of the 21st century. These referents are fairness, the presence of the prison-industrial complex, Pat Carlen's notion of the obsolescence of the rehabilitation paradigm, Reiman's Pyrrhic Defeat Theory and, finally, Steven Box's valuable concept of crime mystification. Firstly, I attempt to show by way of three well-known cases in local criminal proceedings (namely that of Zuma, Omotoso and Van der Vyver) that fairness does not necessarily benefit all accused in the same manner, as one would expect. In fact, the evidence seems to suggest the contrary, namely, that it is the rich and powerful who are able to draw most advantageously on this resource. Secondly, I argue that the repurposing of the prison from its historical justification as a centre of prevention and rehabilitation to a business model, is nowhere more visible than in the phenomenon which came to be known as the prison-industrial complex. Thirdly, I suggest, by way of application of Reiman's Pyrrhic defeat theory and Box's notion of the mystification of crime, that the marginalisation of floating populations as criminogenic within this context, serves the useful purpose of diverting the popular attention away from the far more monstrous crimes of the state and their corporate partners. I also aim to explore the impact which the "war on crime" is having on our understanding of the public/ private divide as the 21st century progresses. In order to gauge the existing rehabilitative potential of the Department of Correctional Services'sprograms and policy directives, I provide a critical overview of these, even though this consideration could amount to nothing but forced coercion. Said in another way, irrespective of the efficacy or otherwise of DCS's rehabilitation and resettlement mandate, the question is and remains how sustainable and realistic such efforts at rehabilitation are, if the social and economic conditions on the ground are criminogenic. Before heading into a discussion, I reflect on the probable theoretical perspectives which these five trends in criminal justice might give rise to. After a prolonged discussion, in which I weigh the evidence of a blurred private/public demarcation, as the 21st century wears on, I conclude that this dichotomy is likely to become more complex, as it not only deepens, but also becomes more blurred. The emergence of a third space (exile) is also possible in neoliberal government's punitive management of urban marginality. In conclusion, I suggest that the crime rehabilitiation paradigm in South Africa has, to an extent, become redundant, but, considering the partial success which DCS has achieved with its numerous ongoing rehabilitation programs and the repurposing of the Department's mandate from purely punitive to that of a rehabilitation-driven institution, the implications for possible policy reformulation are multi-factoral. The complete rejection of the rehabilitation paradigm in South Africa, even though certainly comprehensible, is not recommended. The question that remains, however, is to what extent rehabilitation and resettlement programs can be defended in view of the wider social and economic conditions which militate against sustainable rehabilitation in principle, and are in fact, criminogenic.

In hierdie bydrae word gepoog om aan te toon dat Carlen (2013) se standpunt dat die rehabilitasieparadigma in Brittanje uitgediend is, eweneens op postapartheid Suid-Afrika van toepassing is. Aangesien omstandighede hier ter plaatse egter uiteraard verskil van dié in die Verenigde Koninkryk, spits ek my metodiek in besonder toe op 'n krities-kriminologiese oorweging van vyf unieke aspekte van die Suid-Afrikaanse ervaring. My vertrekpunt is dus 'n klemverskuiwing. Eerstens poog ek om aan die hand van drie welbekende gevalle in plaaslike strafregverrigtinge (naamlik Zuma, Omotoso en Van der Vyver) aan te toon dat billikheid nie noodwendig alle beskuldigdes tot dieselfde mate begunstig nie, maar hoofsaaklik tot wesenlike voordeel van welgesteldes en gesaghebbendes dien. Tweedens wys ek daarop dat die gebruiksverandering van die gevangenis na 'n besigheidsmodel, nêrens in groter mate sigbaar is as by die verskynsel wat bekend staan as die gevangenis-industriële kompleks nie. Derdens betoog ek, aan die hand van Reiman se pyrrhusnederlaagteorie en Box se gedagte van die versluiering van misdaad, dat die verguising van die uitgeslotenes ("urban marginality") as kriminogenies binne hierdie konteks die nuttige doel dien om aandag van staatsmisdade of dié van die staat se korporatiewe bondgenote af te lei. Teen hierdie agtergrond oorweeg ek die gedeeltelike sukses wat met rehabilitasiebeleid en -praktyke ter plaatse behaal is. Laastens kom ek tot die gevolgtrekking dat die rehabilitasieparadigma wel tot 'n mate in Suid-Afrika uitgediend is, die implikasies vir nuwe beleidsformulering veelvlakkig is en word die algehele verwerping van hierdie paradigma in die Suid-Afrikaanse konteks nie aanbeveel nie.

ABSTRACT The purpose of this investigation is to analyze organized crime in Ecuador, its tactics and the social effects that derive from it, whose problem lies in the fact that organized crime has become one of the most pervasive criminal elements in our societies, becoming more visible as a result of the generalization of its activities both in social and geographical terms and in terms of the variety of social ethical values that it threatens or undermines. This greater visibility is a direct result of the high level of social alarm that it generates. We proceed to the study of this, considering qualitative research, analyzing documents, texts, etc., which were part of the realization of this work. Concluding that the purpose of organized crime is to commit crimes to obtain financial or economic benefits, for which educational plans and sufficient logistics are developed to carry them out. To fight against these criminal organizations, it is necessary to establish an efficient legal system, as well as strategies in educational centers that help us to minimize the risk of young people opting for this practice to obtain economic benefits from an early age.

RESUMEN El propósito de esta investigación es analizar la delincuencia organizada en Ecuador, sus tácticas y los efectos sociales que se derivan de él, cuya problemática radica en que el crimen organizado se ha convertido en uno de los elementos criminales más penetrantes en las sociedades, haciéndose más visible como resultado de la generalización de sus actividades tanto en términos sociales y geográficos como en términos de la variedad de valores éticos sociales que amenaza o socava. Esta mayor visibilidad es un resultado directo del alto nivel de alarma social que genera. Se procede al estudio de este, tomando en cuenta la investigación cualitativa, analizando documentos, textos, etc., que formaron parte para la realización de este trabajo. Concluyendo, que la finalidad de la delincuencia organizada es cometer delitos para obtener beneficios financieros o económicos, para lo cual desarrolla planes educativos y la logística suficiente para llevarlos a cabo. Para luchar contra estas organizaciones criminales, es necesario establecer un sistema legal eficiente, así como una estrategia en los centros educacionales que sirva para desde edades tempranas minimizar el riesgo de que los jóvenes opten por esta práctica para obtener beneficios económicos.

Abstract This paper presents a comparative study on Chilean insolvency offenses in light of criminal insolvency legislation in the US, Germany, and Spain. The objective of this article is to determine the Chilean criminal policy behind the reform of the crimes defined between articles 463 and 466 of the Chilean penal code and to analyze some of the main changes in the matter and the repercussions that they will have in terms of criminal prosecution. For this, a qualitative and quantitative analysis is used using a dogmatic methodology together with a set of graphic background in order to have a vision of the numerical reality of bankruptcies of individuals and companies in the indicated countries. This information will allow us to have elements to assess in order to analyze the regulation and the criminal response of the legislator with special emphasis on the new Chilean legal-criminal regulation regarding the 2014 reforms and regarding the 2023 economic crime bill.

Resumen El presente trabajo presenta un estudio comparado en materia de delitos de insolvencia punible chileno a la luz de la legislación penal de la insolvencia en los EE. UU., Alemania y España. El objetivo del presente artículo es determinar la política criminal chilena detrás de la reforma de los delitos tipificados entre los artículos 463 y 466 del código penal chileno y analizar algunos de los principales cambios en la materia y las repercusiones que tendrá en materia de persecución penal. Para ello, se recurre a un análisis cualitativo y cuantitativo utilizando una metodología dogmática junto con un conjunto de antecedentes gráficos a fin de tener una visión de la realidad numérica de los concursos de personas y de empresas en los países señalados. Esta información permitirá tener elementos a valorar para analizar la regulación y la respuesta penal del legislador con especial énfasis de la nueva regulación jurídico-penal chilena respecto a las reformas de 2014 y respecto al proyecto de delitos económicos de 2023.

Zusammenfassung In diesem Artikel wird eine vergleichende Studie zu chilenischen Insolvenzdelikten innerhalb der Insolvenzstrafgesetzgebung in den USA, Deutschland und Spanien vorgestellt. Das Ziel dieses Artikels besteht darin, die chilenische Kriminalpolitik hinter der Reform der in den Artikeln 463 und 466 des chilenischen Strafgesetzbuchs definierten Straftaten zu bestimmen und einige der wichtigsten Änderungen in dieser Angelegenheit und die Auswirkungen, die sie in Bezug auf diese haben, zu analysieren Strafverfolgung. Hierzu wird eine qualitative und quantitative Analyse unter Verwendung einer dogmatischen Methodik zusammen mit einer Reihe grafischer Hintergründe verwendet, um eine Vorstellung von der zahlenmäßigen Realität der Insolvenzen von Einteilungen und Unternehmen in den angegebenen zu Ländern zu erhalten. Diese Informationen werden es uns ermöglichen, Elemente zu bewerten, um die Regulierung und die strafrechtliche Reaktion des Gesetzgebers zu analysieren, mit besonderem Schwerpunkt auf der neuen chilenischen Rechts- und Strafgesetzgebung im Hinblick auf die Reformen von 2014 und im Hinblick auf das Wirtschaftskriminalitätsgesetz von 2023.

Resumen: El objetivo es determinar si existe una correlación entre variables manifiestas como Producto Interno Bruto, Tipo de cambio, crecimiento económico, delitos cometidos, Precio de mezcla del petróleo, confianza del consumidor y desocupación laboral y su agrupación en factores económicos externos e internos, para determinar la bancarrota. Usando Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio (AFC), como herramienta de validación. El método consiste en, definir las variables y relacionarlas con los índices publicados por organizaciones como INEGI, BANXICO o Banco Mundial; Para posteriormente realizar el AFC. Del AFC se obtiene como resultado la correlación de variables manifiestas en dos factores, el económico externo e interno. El hallazgo fue que se logró la correlación entre las variables manifiestas y los factores económicos internos y externos. La originalidad es el uso de índices externos, sin necesidad de recurrir a métodos tradicionales de encuestas o cuestionarios. La limitante radica en que no todos los índices aportan datos suficientes.

Abstract: The objective is to determine if there is a correlation between manifest variables such as Gross Domestic Product, Exchange rate, economic growth, crimes committed, Oil mix price, consumer confidence and job unemployment and their grouping into external and internal economic factors, to determine bankruptcy. Using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), as a validation tool. The method consists of defining the variables and relating them to the indices published by organizations such as INEGI, BANXICO or the World Bank; To later perform the AFC. From the AFC, the correlation of manifest variables in two factors, the external and internal economic one, is obtained as a result. The finding was that the correlation between the manifest variables and the internal and external economic factors was achieved. Originality is the use of external indices, without the need to resort to traditional methods of surveys or questionnaires. The limitation is that not all indices provide sufficient data.

Abstract Brazil has a high rate of homicide, whose increase in recent years seems to be closely related to the expansion of the illegal drug market. This study aims to analyze the role that socioeconomic factors (family instability, ethnic heterogeneity, unemployment rate, and average income) play in this escalation. The study uses pooled regression models and fixed and random effects, with panel data from 27 Brazilian states for the period 2006–2015. The results indicate that the illegal drug trade is positively correlated with the mortality rates in Brazil during 2006-2015. Furthermore, the results show family instability, ethnic heterogeneity, unemployment rate, and average income as crime enhancers. This research brings insights that help develop a better interpretation of Brazilian lethal violence: in the 1980s and 1990s, violence was mainly explained by economic factors. This study points to the fact that phenomena linked to social disorder are also correlated with the level of homicides in Brazilian states. Therefore, this paper contributes to the literature by incorporating other elements that suggest alternatives to mitigate violent crime in Brazil. homicide market instability heterogeneity escalation effects 2 20062015 2006 2015 2006–2015 20062015. 2015. 2006-2015 Furthermore enhancers s 1990s Therefore 2006201 200 201 2006–201 2006-201 200620 20 2006–20 2006-20 20062 2006–2 2006-2 2006– 2006-

Resumo O Brasil apresenta um alto índice de homicídios, cujo aumento nos últimos anos parece estar intimamente relacionado à expansão do mercado ilegal de drogas. Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar o papel que fatores socioeconômicos (instabilidade familiar, heterogeneidade étnica, taxa de desemprego e renda média) desempenham nessa escalada. O trabalho utiliza modelos de regressão pooled, efeitos fixos e aleatórios, com dados em painel de 27 estados brasileiros para o período 2006–2015. Os resultados indicam que o comércio ilegal de drogas está positivamente correlacionado com as taxas de mortalidade para o Brasil no período 2006-2015. Além disso, os resultados mostram os papéis da instabilidade familiar, heterogeneidade étnica, taxa de desemprego e renda média como potencializadores do crime. Esta pesquisa traz insights que ajudam a desenvolver uma melhor interpretação da violência letal brasileira: nos anos 80 e 90, a violência era explicada principalmente por fatores econômicos, este estudo aponta para o fato de fenômenos ligados à desordem social também estarem correlacionados com o nível de homicídios nos estados brasileiros. Portanto, este trabalho contribui com a literatura ao incorporar outros elementos que sugerem alternativas para mitigar a criminalidade violenta no Brasil. familiar étnica escalada pooled aleatórios 2 20062015 2006 2015 2006–2015 20062015. 2015. 2006-2015 disso crime brasileira 8 90 econômicos Portanto 2006201 200 201 2006–201 2006-201 9 200620 20 2006–20 2006-20 20062 2006–2 2006-2 2006– 2006-

The early period of the time of the Reformation was full of social, economic, and political problems reaching the circumstances ofstatus confessionis. It is beyond dispute that the two high esteemed reformers, Luther and Calvin paid strong theological and ethical attention to the evaluation of the several topics of sexuality. Pursuing this "holy project" they were struggling for a more sacred marital and family life. However, as the reformers were trying to commit everything to prevent sexual sins/crimes, there still were so many cases when they were called to discuss in detail what the adequate punishments of adultery would be.

This article aims to discuss the actions leading up to the trial, and the 1874 Langalibalele trial itself, by including both the perspectives of Langalibalele and the colonial government. It sets out how the acquisition of guns from the diamond fields by the flourishing and largely independent Hlubi, their Chief Langalibalele's failure to adhere to a meeting request with colonial government officials, and the killing of three British soldiers outside the colony by fleeing Hlubi created the opportunity for nervous colonists and punitive leaders in a struggling colony to escalate the unfortunate events into the slaughter of hundreds of Africans and the destruction of their property without any negative personal consequences. The results for the colonists were overwhelmingly positive: access to more land, the availability of cheap labour and improved security. Although the colonial government had the support of the colonists, questions were raised in England about the excessive bloodshed of the Hlubi and Putini tribes. After the capture of Langalibalele, his trial was an opportunity for the justification of the colonists' actions. The authorities resorted to deceitful methods and a sham and unlawful trial to ensure the intended outcome, that Langalibalele was found guilty. The article highlights the problems with the trial itself. These include that the Lieutenant-Governor had no power to establish an African court and that the choice of law was inappropriate and contrary to applicable legislation. The law and procedure applied during the trial did not adhere to any specific legal system but was a convenient amalgamation of African and Natal law. Most of the members of the bench were not independent, were clearly prejudiced and were hostile towards the accused. The charges were not in accordance with the chosen law, they were unclear, and the accused's plea explanation was erroneously interpreted as a plea of guilty. He was found guilty before any evidence was led. He had no legal representation, no right to cross-examine witnesses and no right to call his own witnesses. The evidence did not support the crimes he was accused of committing and the punishment imposed was unlawful and exceeded the powers of the court. The appeal process was fraught with intimidation and those hearing the appeal were involved in the original trial. Even after this travesty of justice had been exposed in England and discussed in Parliament, justice was not done for those who suffered the most (Langalibalele, the Hlubi and the Putini). Although Langalibalele was allowed to leave Robben Island, he was not restored as chief, the Hlubi's land and property were not restored, and the Putini did not receive their full compensation. There were some negative personal and career consequences for the unfortunate scapegoat (Pine), but also for the whistle-blower (Colenso) and the individual who unsuccessfully fought for reparations for the Putini reparations (Dunsford). The main conspirators, however, were rewarded with career advances and imperial awards (the Shepstone brothers). This saga emphasises how "gun control formed a large part of an emerging struggle over land and citizenship" and the underhand methods and exceptional power the British used to cement imperial rule. The discovery of diamonds inland increased the economic potential and political importance of the colony, resulting in better security and a more structured, but less autonomous regulatory system for Africans, their chiefs, customs and laws.