Résumé Ce commentaire critique la reproduction de la croyance erronée selon laquelle l’économie mainstream est identique à l’économie néoclassique et celle-ci, à son tour, est identique à l’économie (néo)libérale. Le rejet de ces égalités complique les relations entre l’économie mainstream, orthodoxe et hétérodoxe. Le commentaire soutient également que le cas du Brésil diffère de celui des États-Unis, car plusieurs idées économiques marginalisées aux États-Unis jouissent de prestige et d’influence dans le milieu académique brésilien, ce qui rend le concept même d’économie mainstream plus ambigu. Tout cela implique plusieurs divergences par rapport à l’article récent de Francisco Marques (2024). D’autres différences sont soulignées en ce qui concerne l’utilisation des mathématiques, de la statistique et de l’économétrie, ainsi que l’interdisciplinarité. Le résultat est une vision plus complexe de l’académie économique aux États-Unis et surtout au Brésil. Le commentaire identifie également et corrige les principales distorsions dans la traduction que Marques fait d’un passage relativement long de Dequech (2018). léconomie l économie celleci, celleci celle ci, ci celle-ci tour néolibérale. néolibérale néo libérale. libérale (néo)libérale hétérodoxe ÉtatsUnis, ÉtatsUnis États Unis, Unis dinfluence d influence brésilien déconomie ambigu larticle article 2024. 2024 . (2024) Dautres D autres lutilisation utilisation mathématiques léconométrie, léconométrie économétrie, économétrie l’économétrie linterdisciplinarité. linterdisciplinarité interdisciplinarité. interdisciplinarité l’interdisciplinarité lacadémie académie dun un 2018. 2018 (2018) 202 (2024 201 (2018 20 (202 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Abstract This comment criticizes the reproduction of the mistaken belief that mainstream economics is equal to neoclassical economics and that the latter, in turn, is equal to (neo)liberal economics. The rejection of those equalities turns the relations among mainstream, orthodox and heterodox economics more difficult. The comment also claims that the Brazilian case is different from the American one, since several economic ideas marginalized in the United States have both prestige and influence in the Brazilian academy, which makes the concept of mainstream economics itself more ambiguous. All that implies many divergences regarding the recent article by Francisco Marques (2024). Other differences are pointed out regarding the use of math, statistics and econometry, as well as interdisciplinarity. The result is a more complex view of the economics academy in the United States and mainly in Brazil. The comment also identifies and corrects the main distortions in the translation that Marques made of a relatively long excerpt of Dequech (2018). latter turn neoliberal neo liberal difficult one ambiguous 2024. 2024 . (2024) math econometry interdisciplinarity Brazil 2018. 2018 (2018) 202 (2024 201 (2018 20 (202 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Resumen Este comentario critica la reproducción de la creencia errónea de que la economía mainstream es igual a la economía neoclásica y que la economía neoclásica es igual a la economía (neo)liberal. El rechazo de estas igualdades complica las relaciones entre la economía mainstream, ortodoxa y heterodoxa. El comentario también argumenta que el caso de Brasil es diferente al de EE.UU., ya que varias ideas económicas marginadas en EE.UU. tienen prestigio e influencia en el mundo académico brasileño, lo que hace que el propio concepto de economía mainstream sea más ambiguo. Todo ello implica varias divergencias con respecto al reciente artículo de Francisco Marques (2024). Otras diferencias son señaladas acerca del uso de las matemáticas, la estadística y la econometría, así como de la interdisciplinaridad. El resultado es una visión más compleja del mundo académico económico en Estados Unidos y, sobre todo, en Brasil. El comentario también identifica y corrige las principales distorsiones en la traducción de Marques de un extracto relativamente largo de Dequech (2018). neoliberal. neoliberal neo liberal. liberal (neo)liberal heterodoxa EEUU EE UU EE.UU brasileño ambiguo 2024. 2024 . (2024) matemáticas econometría interdisciplinaridad todo 2018. 2018 (2018) 202 (2024 201 (2018 20 (202 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Resumo Este comentário critica a reprodução da crença equivocada de que a economia mainstream é igual à economia neoclássica e de que esta, por sua vez, é igual à economia (neo)liberal. A rejeição dessas igualdades complica as relações entre economia mainstream, ortodoxa e heterodoxa. O comentário argumenta também que o caso do Brasil é diferente do americano, pois várias ideias econômicas que são marginalizadas nos Estados Unidos têm prestígio e influência na academia brasileira, o que torna o próprio conceito de economia mainstream mais ambíguo. Tudo isso implica várias divergências em relação ao artigo recente de Francisco Marques (2024). Outras diferenças são apontadas no que se refere ao uso de matemática, estatística e econometria e à interdisciplinaridade. O resultado é uma visão mais complexa da academia de economia nos Estados Unidos e sobretudo no Brasil. O comentário também identifica e corrige as principais distorções na tradução que Marques faz de um trecho relativamente longo de Dequech (2018). esta vez neoliberal. neoliberal neo liberal. liberal (neo)liberal heterodoxa americano brasileira ambíguo 2024. 2024 . (2024) matemática interdisciplinaridade 2018. 2018 (2018) 202 (2024 201 (2018 20 (202 (201 2 (20 (2 (

Abstract Based on statistical information from 2020 from the municipalities of Oaxaca, Mexico, a spatial econometrics model is estimated to evaluate the factors that influence municipal poverty in the state and identify whether the productive specialization of the municipalities can be a factor that contributes to the reduction of poverty, in its total, moderate and extreme dimensions. It was identified that specialization in subsectors 311, 332 and 722 can contribute to reducing poverty in the municipalities of Oaxaca.

Resumen A partir de información estadística de 2020 de los municipios de Oaxaca, México, se estima un modelo de econometría espacial para evaluar los factores que influyen en la pobreza municipal del estado e identificar si la especialización productiva de los municipios puede ser un factor que contribuya a la disminución de la pobreza, en sus dimensiones de total, moderada y extrema. Se identificó que la especialización en los subsectores 311, 332 y 722 pueden contribuir a reducir la pobreza de la entidad.

Abstract A comparison is established between the traditional design of the linear economy and that of a circular economy through the proposal of heuristic dynamic models based on non-linear systems of ordinary differential equations. It was found that, for critical values of the control parameter, natural resources, through an Andronov-Hopf bifurcation, the circular economy model self-organizes out of thermodynamic equilibrium, and exhibits high complexity, robustness, resilience and adaptability, which was verified by evaluating the Shannon entropy of their trajectories. Finally, it was shown, through an ansatz, that the circular economy model shows greater efficiency compared to the traditional linear model.

Resumen Se establece una comparación entre el diseño tradicional de la economía lineal y el de una economía circular a través de la propuesta de modelos dinámicos heurísticos basados en sistemas no lineales de ecuaciones diferenciales ordinarias. Se encontró que, para valores críticos del parámetro de control, los recursos naturales, a través de una bifurcación de Andronov-Hopf, el modelo de economía circular se autorganiza fuera del equilibrio termodinámico, y exhibe una alta complejidad, robustez, resiliencia y adaptabilidad, lo cual se verificó a través de evaluar la entropía de Shannon de sus trayectorias. Finalmente, se mostró por medio de un ansatz, que el modelo de economía circular muestra una mayor eficiencia en comparación con el modelo tradicional lineal.

Abstract: This article uses data from the Census of Agriculture 2014 pertaining to the Department of Boyacá. It connects the production performance at the municipal level to a set of rural determinants, which encompass the exploitation of the agricultural potential. This approach highlights features of the agricultural sector in Boyacá: the predominance of annual crops, the break-up of agricultural units, the family arrangements to supply labor input, and the lack of a widespread export stuff, inter alia. The methodology employs a spatial approach that seeks to identify spatial patterns in the agricultural output, using the municipality as the spatial unit. We resort to spatial econometrics to model the determinants of the agricultural output, and to point out a better spatial structure according to the pool of data. The econometric results confirm a kind of spatial dependence in the error, suggesting the influence of common shocks affecting the agricultural output, everywhere the municipalities of Boyacá. Throughout the region, the traditional production profile, based on annual crops to satisfy the national consumption, prevails. This type of production depends on typical rural conditions: small plots of land, little mechanized production, family work and precarious wages. JEL Classification: R12; R14; R58; C51; N56.

Resumen: El artículo se inspira en los resultados del Censo Agrícola 2014 para Boyacá. El propósito es relacionar el desempeño puramente productivo con los determinantes de economía campesina que sirven de contexto a la producción en toneladas. Entre estos últimos se destacan la especialización en cultivos transitorios, la fragmentación de las unidades de producción agrícolas, la provisión familiar de trabajadores, la ínfima importancia de la oferta exportable, etc. La metodología adopta un enfoque espacial que persigue identificar los patrones espaciales de la producción, definiendo el municipio boyacense como la unidad de análisis en el plano geográfico. La econometría dilucida cuál es la mejor estructura en el espacio que modela los datos básicos. De esta manera se convalida el modelo de error espacial, que da lugar a la presencia de shocks comunes a todos los municipios boyacenses, afectando en todos ellos la producción agrícola. La interacción entre dichas unidades geográficas permite modelar la producción volcada mayoritariamente hacia el mercado nacional, la cual es explicada significativamente por determinantes típicamente rurales: la fragmentación de las unidades agrícolas, las técnicas de producción escasamente mecanizadas, la relevancia del trabajo familiar como factor de producción, y las precarias remuneraciones.

Abstract The effective access to various financial products can be decisive to use efficiently the opportunities offered by the financial market. The purpose of this research is to determine the inclusion degree of financing in Mexico for 2021, so, a method used was through spatial econometrics to identify clusters at municipal level. The results showed that administrative units that have elevated levels of correlation in indicators such as: access roads, number of credit products and number of deposit accounts; have more financial inclusion in CDMX’s administrative units. On the other hand, zones with lowest levels of financial inclusion correspond to Oaxaca and Guerrero counties. The development of a financial inclusion strategy is proposed according to the needs of the identified clusters. This work innovates in presenting a cluster analysis at the municipal level for financial inclusion.

Resumen El contar con acceso efectivo a diversos productos financieros puede ser determinante para explotar de manera eficiente el área de oportunidades que brinda el mercado financiero para la sociedad. Esta investigación tiene como propósito determinar el grado de inclusión de los productos y servicios del sector financiero en México para el año 2021, para lo cual, se utiliza un método mediante econometría espacial para la identificación de clusters a nivel municipal. Los resultados revelan que los municipios que cuentan con niveles altos de correlación en indicadores como: vías de acceso, cantidad de productos de crédito y cantidad de cuentas de captación; cuentan con mayor inclusión financiera, tales como las alcaldías de la CDMX. Por otro lado, las zonas que cuentan con niveles más bajos de inclusión financiera corresponden a los municipios de las entidades federativas de Oaxaca y Guerrero. Se propone el desarrollo de una estrategia de inclusión financiera de acuerdo con las necesidades de los clusters identificados. Este trabajo innova en presentar un análisis cluster a nivel municipal para la inclusión financiera.

ABSTRACT The environmental crisis due to climate change has forced many States to direct efforts towards environmental transition to reduce the probability of occurrence of a situation with a negative impact on their population or environment. Peru is no exception. In this sense, the need arises to identify and categorize its districts according to a certain socio-environmental risk. Faced with this challenge, a multistage quantitative methodology was developed and implemented, which made use of both machine learning (supervised and unsupervised) and spatial econometrics. The results of this methodology, visualized through emerging risk indix, evidenced the existence of 165 districts considered socio-environmental risk zones (SERZ, in Spanish known as ZRS), mostly located in the coastal strip. Finally, it is concluded that the pattern and replicability of urban development model in Peru is currently not coherent with efforts towards environmental conservation and preservation.

RESUMEN La crisis ambiental por el cambio climático ha obligado a muchos Estados a dirigir esfuerzos hacia la transición medioambiental para reducir la probabilidad de ocurrencia de una situación con un impacto negativo sobre su población o medioambiente. El Perú no es la excepción. En tal sentido, surge la necesidad de identificar y categorizar sus distritos según un determinado riesgo socioambiental. Ante tal reto, se construyó e implementó una metodología cuantitativa multietápica, la cual hizo uso tanto del aprendizaje automatizado (supervisado y no supervisado) como de la econometría espacial. Los resultados de la metodología, visualizados a través de índices de riesgo emergentes, evidenciaron la existencia de 165 distritos considerados zonas con riesgo socioambiental (ZRS), ubicados en su mayoría en la franja costera. Finalmente, se concluye que el patrón y replicabilidad del modelo de desarrollo urbanístico en el Perú actualmente no es coherente con los esfuerzos de conservación y preservación del medioambiente.

Abstract: This paper assesses the importance of some variables that influence the adoption of integrated production systems, especially the Agroforestry Systems (SAFs), into the Brazilian farms. In order to achieve this purpose, an aggregated panel data at the municipal level and spatial econometric models are used. Dataset were collected from Brazil´s Agricultural Censuses for the years 2006 and 2017. Results from the SARAR model indicate that the size of the cattle herd in each municipality is negatively linked with the adoption of SAFs. On the other hand, SAFs adoption is positively linked with the increase of rural credit loans, the association of the farmers into cooperatives or class entities, the greater presence of farms focused on forestry economic activity, the greater presence of farmers older than 45 years, the greater presence of areas with degraded pastures, greater presence of farmers with stable land tenure and the greater frequency of farms that adopted good agricultural practices. Additionally, there were greater direct effects than the indirect ones in the spatial spillovers (among municipalities) of the aforementioned explanatory variables. Abstract systems SAFs, , (SAFs) purpose used Brazils Brazil s 200 2017 hand loans entities activity 4 pastures practices Additionally among municipalities (SAFs 20 201 2

Resumo: O presente artigo avalia a importância de algumas variáveis que influenciam a adoção de sistemas integrados de produção, em especial, os Sistemas Agroflorestais (SAFs), nos estabelecimentos agropecuários brasileiros. Com esse intento, utilizam-se dados em painéis agregados a nível de municípios e modelos da econometria espacial. Os dados são provenientes dos censos agropecuários referentes aos anos de 2006 e 2017. Os resultados do modelo SARAR apontam que a dimensão do rebanho bovino em um município associa-se negativamente com a adoção dos SAFs. De outro lado, ajuntam-se positivamente, com a adoção dos SAFs, a concessão do crédito rural, a associação do produtor à cooperativa ou entidade de classe, a maior presença de estabelecimentos direcionados à atividade econômica florestal, a maior ocorrência de produtor com idade de 45 anos em diante, maiores presenças de áreas com pastagens degradadas e de produtor com posse estável da terra, bem como maior frequência de estabelecimentos com adoção de boas práticas agrícolas. Adicionalmente, constataram-se maiores efeitos diretos do que os indiretos nos transbordamentos espaciais (entre municípios) das variáveis explicativas supracitadas. Resumo produção especial SAFs , (SAFs) brasileiros intento utilizamse utilizam se espacial 200 2017 associase associa lado ajuntamse ajuntam positivamente rural classe florestal 4 diante terra agrícolas Adicionalmente constataramse constataram entre supracitadas (SAFs 20 201 2

Abstract This research aims to identify the effects of access to rural credit, as well as the amount of resources on the levels of income, employment, productivity and sustainability in the state of Rio de Janeiro, with emphasis on the municipalities that make up the Serrana region in comparison to other municipalities in the state, which are characterized by family production. Specifically, the agents that use the National Program for the Strengthening of Family Farming - Pronaf, which are of strategic importance for sustainable regional development, are analyzed. The impacts obtained with access to the resource will be verified, as well as the importance of public policies in stimulating the sector. For this, econometric models were developed using the MQO method, complemented by quantile regression. In addition, an index aimed at evaluating the degree of sustainable regional rural development in the regions studied (IDRSR) was designed through factor analysis of data. After using official data from the 2017 agricultural census and the BACEN, it was observed that credit via PRONAF has a positive impact on the variables employment, income and productivity, but presents a negative correlation with the Rural Regional Sustainable Development Index developed in this research. employment Janeiro production Specifically Pronaf analyzed verified sector method regression addition IDRSR (IDRSR 201 BACEN 20 2

Resumo Este artigo visa a identificar os efeitos do acesso ao crédito rural bem como o volume de recursos nos níveis de renda, emprego, produtividade e sustentabilidade no estado do Rio de Janeiro, com destaque para os municípios que compõem a região Serrana em comparação com os demais municípios do estado que sejam caracterizados pela produção familiar. Especificamente, são analisados os agentes que utilizam o Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar - Pronaf, os quais têm importância estratégica para o desenvolvimento regional sustentável - DRS. Serão verificados os impactos obtidos com o acesso ao recurso, assim como sua importância advinda de políticas públicas no estímulo ao setor. Para isso, foram desenvolvidos modelos econométricos utilizando o método de MQO, complementado por regressão quantílica. Além disso, foi concebido, através da análise fatorial de dados, um índice direcionado a avaliar o grau de desenvolvimento regional sustentável rural nas regiões estudadas (IDRSR). Após utilizar dados oficiais do censo agropecuário 2017 e do BACEN, foi observado que o crédito via PRONAF tem impacto positivo nas variáveis emprego, renda e produtividade, porém apresenta correlação negativa perante o Índice de Desenvolvimento Regional Sustentável Rural desenvolvido nesta pesquisa. emprego Janeiro familiar Especificamente Pronaf DRS recurso setor isso MQO quantílica disso concebido IDRSR. IDRSR . (IDRSR) 201 BACEN pesquisa (IDRSR 20 2

ABSTRACT: This study assessed the adoption level of essential oil extraction practices among lemon growers in the Pothwar region of Punjab, Pakistan. A well-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from 138 smallholders using the interview method by trained remunerators. Descriptive statistics and econometrics; logit and Poisson regression were employed for data analysis. Results of farmers’ perceptions of adopting new practices indicated that 10.1% of the farmers are not adopting any one, 22.5% are adopting any three, and 26.8% are adopting all four practices. Moreover, farmers’ age, farming experience, land holding, skill, training participation, and receptivity proved to be statistically significant determinants in improving the likelihood of adopting all four practices under the logit and Poisson models, respectively. Hence, it is recommended that the provision of an effective package in the form of literature concerning essential oil extraction practices to the doorsteps of smallholders during demonstration sessions, along with adequate professional training, could help in improving farmers’ perceptions toward adoption and strengthening the essential oil sector. ABSTRACT Punjab Pakistan wellstructured well structured 13 remunerators econometrics analysis 101 10 1 10.1 one 225 22 5 22.5 three 268 26 8 26.8 Moreover age experience holding skill participation models respectively Hence sessions sector 10. 2 22. 26.

RESUMO: Este estudo contemporâneo foi conduzido para avaliar o nível de adoção de práticas de extração de óleo essencial entre os produtores de limão na região de Pothwar, em Punjab, Paquistão. Um questionário bem estruturado foi utilizado para coletar dados de 138 pequenos agricultores utilizando o método de entrevista por remuneradores treinados. Estatística descritiva e econometria; logit e regressão de Poisson foram empregados para análise dos dados. Os resultados das percepções dos agricultores sobre a adoção de novas práticas indicaram que 10,1% dos agricultores não adotam nenhuma, 22,5% adotam quaisquer três e 26,8% adoptam as quatro práticas. Além disso, a idade dos agricultores, a experiência agrícola, a propriedade da terra, as competências, a participação na formação e a receptividade provaram ser determinantes estatisticamente significativos na melhoria da probabilidade de adoção de todas as quatro práticas no âmbito dos modelos logit e Poisson, respectivamente. Assim, recomenda-se que o fornecimento de um pacote eficaz sob a forma de literatura relativa às práticas de extracção de óleos essenciais às portas dos pequenos agricultores durante as sessões de demonstração, juntamente com formação profissional adequada, poderia ajudar a melhorar as percepções dos agricultores relativamente à adoção e ao reforço dos princípios essenciais. RESUMO Pothwar Punjab Paquistão 13 treinados econometria 101 10 1 10,1 nenhuma 225 22 5 22,5 268 26 8 26,8 disso agrícola terra competências respectivamente Assim recomendase recomenda se demonstração adequada 10, 2 22, 26,

Abstract The Brazilian financial system showed systematic increases in the amount of free and earmarked credit after 2001, but few studies relate credit and industry distribution in the territory. This article aims to verify the spatial impacts of the availability of credit on the specialization of Brazilian microregions in the industry sector. The locational quotient of employment relationships in industry by technological intensity was used as an indicator of industrial specialization, between 2006 and 2019, with Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis (AEDE) and spatial econometrics techniques. The results indicate the existence of spatial autocorrelation in locational quotient of industrials’ links, with spatial clusters mainly in the Southeast and South regions, there are significant impacts of the banks’ liquidity preference and BNDES credit on the industrial specialization of microregions, in activities of low and medium technological intensity and; activity of high technological intensity showed a worsening in the spatial distribution. 2001 territory sector 200 2019 AEDE (AEDE techniques industrials links regions banks 20 201 2

Resumo O sistema financeiro brasileiro apresentou incrementos sistemáticos no montante de crédito livre e direcionado após 2001, porém poucos estudos relacionam crédito e distribuição da indústria no território. O objetivo deste artigo é verificar os impactos espaciais da disponibilização de crédito sobre a especialização das microrregiões brasileiras no setor da indústria. Foi utilizado o quociente locacional de vínculos empregatícios na indústria por intensidade tecnológica como indicador de especialização industrial, entre 2006 e 2019, com técnicas de Análise Exploratória de Dados Espaciais (AEDE) e econometria espacial. Os resultados indicam: a existência de autocorrelação espacial em relação ao quociente locacional de vínculos industriais, com clusters espaciais principalmente nas regiões Sudeste e Sul; que há impactos significativos da preferência pela liquidez dos bancos e do crédito do BNDES sobre a especialização industrial das microrregiões, em atividades de baixa e média intensidade tecnológica; e atividade de alta intensidade tecnológica apresentou piora na distribuição espacial. 2001 território 200 2019 AEDE (AEDE indicam industriais Sul 20 201 2

Abstract Water is an indispensable good for society, in recent decades emphasis has been placed on the importance of its consumption and responsible use. There are several factors that have increased the use of water, such as population growth, urban expansion and the increase in people’s income. In this sense, the present study analyzes the demand for water consumption, for which a time series econometrics methodology is proposed with data from the Municipal Board of Potable Water of Mazatlán, Sinaloa; likewise, emphasis is placed on goal eleven “Sustainable Cities and Communities” for Sustainable Development of the United Nations and Latin America ECLAC (2018). The main results, they show that consumption during the pandemic was higher than consumption before the pandemic. Also, it is observed that, when taking the classification of areas of the neighborhoods of the Municipal Planning Institute, it is observed that the areas close to or that include the tourist strip decreased their consumption during the pandemic and in the areas of the peri- phery increased the consumption of drinking water. One of the reasons that explains such behavior is the global confinement due to the SARS-Cov-2 pandemic.

Resumen El agua es un bien indispensable para la sociedad, en las últimas décadas se ha hecho énfasis en la importancia de su consumo y de su uso responsable. Son varios los factores que han incrementado el uso del agua, tal como el crecimiento de la población, la expansión urbana y el aumento de ingresos de las personas. En ese sentido, el presente estudio analiza la demanda del consumo de agua, para lo cual se propone una metodología de econometría de series de tiempo con datos de la Junta Municipal de Agua Potable de Mazatlán, Sinaloa; asimismo, se hace énfasis en el objetivo once: “Ciudades y Comunidades Sostenibles”, para el Desarrollo Sostenible de las Naciones Unidas y América Latina CEPAL (2018). Los principales resultados arrojan que el consumo durante la pandemia fue mayor al consumo antes de la pandemia. También se observa que, al tomar la clasificación de zonas de las colonias del Instituto Municipal de Planeación, en las zonas cercanas o que incluyen la franja turística disminuyó su consumo durante la pandemia y en las zonas de la periferia incrementa el consumo de agua potable. Una de las razones que explica tal comportamiento es el confinamiento mundial por la pandemia de SARS-Cov-2.

Resumen De acuerdo con el Acuerdo de París en 2015 y la Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático en 2021, el mundo debería mantener la temperatura media mundial muy por debajo de los 2 grados Celsius, considerando los niveles preindustriales a largo plazo, y contener el aumento de temperatura en 1.50 grados Celsius por encima de los niveles preindustriales. Costa Rica es un país con una acción climática atrevida y con mucho carisma. Desde finales de la década de 1960, este país ha implementado políticas y prácticas de vanguardia en el campo ambiental. Esta investigación explica la relación entre las emisiones de CO2 per cápita de Costa Rica, con el crecimiento económico expresado a través del Producto Interno Bruto (PIB) per cápita (dólares constantes de 2015). Así, se probará la hipótesis de si la teoría de la Curva Ambiental de Kuznets (CAK) se aplica en Costa Rica. Basados en Banco Mundial (2023), World Development Indicators, y de Global Change Data Lab (2023), y mediante un análisis correlacional cuantitativo con un tipo de diseño no experimental longitudinal con datos de series de tiempo desde el año 1990 hasta el año 2021, se argumenta que las emisiones de CO2 per cápita se ven influenciados positivamente con significación estadística al 5 % de margen de error, por el PIB per cápita (dólares constantes de 2015), y por el consumo de energía per cápita. Alternativamente, las emisiones de CO2 per cápita son influenciadas negativamente por el PIB per cápita al cuadrado (dólares estadounidenses constantes de 2015), y por el cambio de uso del suelo per cápita. Sin embargo, estos resultados no pueden ser confirmados con confiabilidad y robustez debido a la ambivalencia y ambigüedad del modelo propuesto. Esto se da como consecuencia de la probabilidad de presencia de multicolinealidad entre las variables, y la falta de normalidad de la variable dependiente. A pesar de los prometedores resultados iniciales de una prueba de bondad de ajuste alta, un estadístico F aceptable, la falta de heterocedasticidad y la no presencia de autocorrelación, la hipótesis de este estudio no puede responderse afirmativamente. A pesar de estos resultados, hay espacio para más investigaciones para confirmar si la hipótesis de EKC se aplica en Costa Rica. Este estudio podría servir como punto de referencia para que los tomadores de decisiones a nivel regional e internacional orienten sus esfuerzos ambientales locales hacia la sostenibilidad planetaria.

Abstract According to the goals proposed and ratified by the Paris Agreement on 2015 and by the United Nations Conference on Climate Change in 2021, the world should attempt to maintain the global average temperature well below 2° above pre-industrial levels in the long run and to restrain the temperature increase to 1.5° C above pre-industrial levels. One country undertaking bold and charismatic environmental action is Costa Rica. Since the late 1960s, this country has implemented both avant-garde policymaking and practices in the environmental field. As a means of contributing with the analysis and understanding of how to determine this country's effectiveness and efficiency in its environmental efforts, this research aims to analyze the relationship between Costa Rica's CO2 emissions per capita with economic growth, expressed via Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita (constant 2015 dollars). Thus, the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis will be tested to determine if Costa Rica is a good example. Using the database from the World Bank's (2023) World Development Indicators and from Global Change Data Lab (2023) as a basis of analysis and through the application of quantitative correlational analysis with a type of longitudinal nonexperimental design with time-series data from the year 1990 to the year 2021, it is argued that increases in CO2 emissions per capita are influenced positively with a statistical significance at a 5% error margin by GDP per capita (constant 2015 US dollars), and by energy consumption per capita. Alternatively, CO2 emissions per capita are influenced negatively with statistical significance at 5 % error margin respectively by GDP per capita squared (constant 2015 US dollars) and land use change per capita. However, these results cannot be confirmed with reliability and robustness because of the ambivalence and ambiguity present in the proposed model as a consequence of the likelihood of the presence of multicollinearity among the variables and the lack of normality of the dependent variable. Despite the initial promising results of a high goodness-of fit test, an acceptable F-statistic, the lack of heteroscedasticity, and an acceptable result showing no autocorrelation presence, the hypothesis of this study cannot be answered affirmatively. Despite these results, there is room for more research to confirm if the EKC hypothesis continues to be applicable in this country. This study could serve as a reference point for decision-makers regionally and internationally to guide their local environmental efforts towards concrete achievements for obtaining a clean planet in the future.

Abstract Objective: To analyze the competitiveness of the Mexican tomato in the United States market Methodology: The normalized revealed comparative advantage index was used, regressions with robust estimators, the Hodrick-Prescott filter was applied to extract the trend and guarantee non-seasonality. Results: Mexico maintains the comparative advantage revealed in the US market, with a growing and consistent competitiveness throughout the period analyzed. This competitiveness is strengthened by belonging to the Trade Agreement, by reinforcing the export process. Limitations: A bilateral MexicoUnited States analysis is considerate, which, although it responds to the proposed research objective, favors continuing to investigate specifically the dynamics of the United States market because decrease in the proportion of the market is identified despite the substantial increase in exports. Conclusions: The VCRN estimate shows that, for the study period, the Mexican tomato has positioned itself in the US market, with a growing trend; The Hodrick-Prescott filter was applied to extract the trend and ensure the non-seasonality of the VCRN, which in turn allowed a better fit in the model, the F test determined that the model was globally accepted to explain the phenomenon.

Resumen Objetivo: Analizar la competitividad del jitomate mexicano en el mercado de los Estados Unidos. Metodología: Se utilizó el índice de ventaja comparativa revelada normalizada, regresiones con estimadores robustos, se aplicó el filtro Hodrick-Prescott para extraer la tendencia y garantiza la no estacionalidad. Resultados: México mantiene la ventaja comparativa revelada en el mercado estadounidense, con una competitividad creciente y consistente a través del período analizado. Esta competitividad se ve fortalecida al pertenecer al Acuerdo comercial, al reforzar el proceso de exportación. Limitaciones: Se toma en cuenta un análisis bilateral México-Estados Unidos que, si bien da respuesta al objetivo de investigación planteado, propicia seguir indagando específicamente en la dinámica del mercado estadounidense debido a que se identifica una disminución en la proporción de mercado de a pesar del aumento sustancial de las exportaciones. Conclusiones: La estimación de la VCRN muestra que, para el período de estudio, el jitomate mexicano se ha posicionado en el mercado estadounidense, con una tendencia creciente; se aplicó el filtro Hodrick-Prescott para extraer la tendencia y asegurar la no estacionalidad de la VCRN, lo cual a su vez permitió un mejor ajuste en el modelo, la prueba F determinó que el modelo fue globalmente aceptado para explicar el fenómeno.

Resumen El presente estudio versa sobre la transferencia de conocimiento y la innovación en México. Parte de la idea de que uno de los insumos fundamentales de la innovación, es la capacidad para crear y transferir conocimiento. Así, la innovación depende de la forma en la que se crea y fluye el conocimiento dentro de los Sistemas Nacionales de Innovación (SNI). Mediante las metodologías de teoría de grafos, econometría y análisis de clúster, se demuestra que México posee una capacidad limitada para generar y trasferir conocimiento y su SNI se encuentra desarticulado, por lo que su tasa de innovación tecnológica es baja. Sin embargo, ello no implica que no exista innovación, antes bien, esta se encuentra focalizada en algunos sectores tecnológicamente avanzados y de muy alta productividad, lo que da lugar a la existencia de diferentes estilos de innovación. Se concluye que sin una política industrial orientada a la articulación del SNI, que contemple mayor gasto en Innovación y Desarrollo Tecnológico (IDT), México seguirá con pobres crecimientos económicos en el largo plazo.

Abstract This study is about knowledge transfer and innovation in Mexico. Consider the hypothesis that one of the fundamental inputs of innovation is the ability to create and transfer knowledge. Thus, innovation depends on the way in which knowledge is created and flows within National Innovation Systems (NIS). Using graph theory, econometrics and cluster analysis, it is shown that Mexico has a limited capacity to generate and transfer knowledge and its NIS is disjointed, and in consequence its rate of technological innovation is low. However, this does not imply that there is no innovation, but rather that it is focused on some technologically advanced and high-productivity sectors, giving rise to different styles of innovation. It is concluded that without an industrial policy oriented to the articulation of the NIS, which considers. higher spending on Innovation and Technological Development (ITD), Mexico will continue with poor economic growth in the long term.

Resumen Este artículo presenta un análisis de la competitividad estatal en México mediante efectos de los factores estructurales y las actividades del conocimiento, con técnicas econométricas espaciales, en el periodo 2003-2013. Los resultados muestran procesos de ajustes espaciales diferenciados y dinámicos en respuesta al entorno económico regional. En el modelo de factores, la inversión es el más relevante, mientras la educación e innovación presentan caídas relativas, al igual que el efecto ubicación. En el modelo de actividades, la producción y aplicación exhiben efectos positivos, pero en años diferentes, mientras la adquisición tiene efectos negativos en 2013, con incrementos del efecto vecino.

Abstract This paper presents an analysis of state competitiveness in Mexico through effects of structural factors and knowledge activities, using spatial econometric techniques in the period 2003-2013. The results show differentiated and dynamic spatial adjustment processes in response to the regional economic environment. In the factor model, investment is the most relevant factor, while education and innovation show relative declines as well as the location effect. In the activities model, production and application exhibit positive effects, although in different years, while acquisition had negative effects in 2013, with increases in the neighbor effect.