Resumen: Con la conquista y colonización, las diversas prácticas sexuales de los pueblos mesoamericanos se redujeron al epítome de pecado. Bajo la prohibición se castigaron aquellas expresiones que no se alineaban a la moral cristiana. Fundamentado en estas primeras notas, el presente texto es una aproximación a la historia de la sodomía, a propósito del control, las relaciones y representaciones, establecidas durante este periodo. Estas son descritas y analizadas a partir de crónicas y fuentes coloniales que hemos localizado en algunos archivos de México, Chiapas y Guatemala, con el objetivo de prolongar la observación en la intromisión y trato de las autoridades civiles y religiosas a los asuntos relacionados con la sexualidad.

Abstract: Along with the conquest and colonization, the diverse sexual practices of the Mesoamerican people were reduced to the epitome of sin. Under the prohibition, they established punishments against sexual dissidences that didn´t align to the Christian moral. Founded in these first notes, the text submitted is an approximation to the history of sodomy, regarding control, relationships and representations established during this period. This are described and analyzed on the basis of chronicles and colonial sources that we have located in some of the archives of México, Chiapas and Guatemala, with the main purpose of extending the observations regarding the intrusion of the civil and religious authorities in the sexual affairs.

The article chronicles diasporic cultural heritage in Natal during the period of indenture in an Indian community in colonial South Africa. Using the qualitative ethnographic research methodology the focus is on the period 1895-1960. This methodology was chosen as it is a qualitative method where observation and/or interaction has taken place in real-life environments. In this article, the Indian cultural heritage as experienced by Mrs Takurine Mahesh Singh who arrived in Port Natal in 1895 is chronicled through the reflective memories of her South African-born eldest grandson, Mr J.S. Singh (b.1930). Further to this, her life in South Africa is explored as she lived in different worlds through various political systems and this life experience extended to include a cultural transformation. During 1960, the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the indentured Indians to the Colony of Natal was commemorated. Hence, this study considers the period 1895-1960. Moving across continents, the indentured Indians arrived in the Colony to work on the sugar plantations. Cultural heritage may be viewed as a sense of one's subjective self-perception based on one's language, ancestry, values, rituals, traditions and religion. During the political era of colonisation and indenture, the Indian nationals became displaced. This displacement created an intrinsic emotional threat. This emotional threat compromised their cultural heritage and consequently led to other forms of cultural transformation. During the oral history interviews, it emerged that the Indian nationals and their descendants in South Africa did not experience abject deculturalisation as they were able to practise aspects of their cultural heritage without the complete loss of their identity. This is one of the findings of the article. The findings indicate that complete deculturalisation did not take place even though cultural transformations resulted in the Indian diaspora in Natal. CONTRIBUTION: With a unique focus on aspects of cultural heritage in the Indian diaspora, this article contributes to the knowledge of the social memory historiography with a spotlight on descendants of Indian indentured labourers in South Africa. The overarching contribution of this article focusses on the cultural transformation during the period under review.

ABSTRACT: This article explores the iconographic traditions of the Pre Hispanic Period in the territory of what is now Venezuela. While archaeological and ethnographic votive statuettes are abundant in Northern Venezuela, south of the Orinoco River hardly any trace of those objects has been found. Chronicles from the Colonial and Republican periods have already documented that difference, highlighting the presence of idolatrous practices in the north and an absence of idolatry in the south. Given this scenario, in this article we attempt to identify the presence of iconographic horizons or visual ontologies that are independent of ceramic styles or linguistic families.

RESUMEN: El artículo explora las tradiciones iconográficas del Período Prehispánico halladas en territorios de la actual Venezuela. A nivel arqueológico y etnográfico se identifica una mayor presencia de estatuillas de uso votivo en el septentrión ve nezolano, mientras que al sur del Orinoco prácticamente no se han encontrado vestigios de aquellas. Las crónicas de los Períodos Colonial y Republicano ya documentan estas diferencias, remarcando las prácticas idolátricas en el norte y la ausencia de idolatría en el sur. Por ello, proponemos la presencia de horizontes iconográficos u ontologías visuales que discurren de forma independiente de la estilística alfarera o las familias lingüísticas.

This work explores the ambit of metal personal insignias or adornments -present in both archaeological evidence and documentary sources- worn by lords in the altiplano over a prolonged period of time which appears to extend from the Middle to the Late period, and even into the Early Colonial. Review of the iconography and comparison with archaeological material in the form of specimens collected in different parts of the Andes provide evidence of the extended use of an Andean system of metal insignias which seem to have denoted both political and religious power simultaneously, through the shared use of these insignias. One of these examples is the insignia in the form of a double -or triple- crescent moon, which the Colla lords are consistently shown wearing throughout the work of Guaman Poma de Ayala. The insignia in question seems to have transferred the power of the huaca (or ancestors) to lords or curacas, in a sort of "corporalisation" and transfer of religious power to the political ambit. This analysis is based on mentions by Ramos Gavilan and Murua of the use by important altiplano personages of "gold patens on their beards" at the Aucaycusqui Intiraymi festival; this information is significant, since it states expressly that the place where the insignia was worn was "on their beards", which must be understood to mean on the chin as we see in Guaman Poma’s drawings. An insignia of very similar form can also be detected in Tiawanaku iconography, which may be considered to be a proto-crescent moon, thus suggesting a possible time-scale for this item. The proposal is based on the triangulation of textual information, material remains and iconographic analysis, delving into the symbolic and temporal scope of this insignia in the altiplano, as well as its possible historical continuity and validity as an ethnic emblem for more than one thousand years.

Este trabajo explora en el ámbito de las insignias o adornos personales de metal -tanto en su presencia arqueológica como documental- portados por los señores altiplánicos a través de un prolongado rango temporal que parece abarcar desde el período Medio al Tardío, e incluso hasta el período Colonial Temprano. La revisión iconográfica y su correspondiente contrastación con el material arqueológico de ejemplos recopilados en distintas áreas de los Andes, dan cuenta del extendido uso de un sistema andino de insignias de metal que parece haber denotado simultáneamente tanto al poder político como al religioso, señalándolos por medio del uso compartido de insignias. Uno de estos ejemplos es la insignia en forma de doble -o triple- luna creciente, con la cual son representados los señores collas por Guamán Poma de Ayala de manera muy consistente en toda su obra. La insignia en cuestión parece haber transferido el poder de la huaca a los señores o curacas, en una suerte de "corporalización" y traspaso del poder religioso al político. Este análisis se basa en las menciones de Ramos Gavilán y Murúa acerca del uso por parte de principales altiplánicos de "patenas de oro en la barba" con ocasión de la fiesta Aucaycusqui Intiraymi; este dato no es menor, ya que se dice expresamente que el lugar ocupado por la insignia era en la "barba", esto debe ser entendido como en la barbilla o mentón, tal cual lo vemos en los dibujos de Guamán Poma. Por otra parte, en la iconografía Tiawanaku también se puede detectar una insignia formalmente muy semejante, la que podría ser considerada como una protoluna creciente, estableciendo así la posible profundidad temporal de la misma. La propuesta se basa en el cruce triangulado de la información textual, los restos materiales y el análisis iconográfico, indagando acerca del alcance simbólico y temporal de esta insignia en el altiplano, así como de su posible continuidad histórica y vigencia como emblema étnico por más de mil años.

Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar os discursos de identidade que foram construídas ao redor da população rural da província durante a segunda metade do século XIX e início do século XX. Procurar na produção de discurso nos permite entender como ele foi descrevendo "o que santiagueño" em paralelo com a construção da alteridade. Metodologicamente nós nos valimos a partir da análise de obras da intelectualidade do século XIX narra estranhos e registros escolares. Isto permitiu-nos compreender as condições sociais e políticas que surgiram no discurso santiagueño identidade como sujeito coletivo e como ela operados em áreas rurais em relação às antigas identidades indígenas e mestiças coloniais. O que santiagueño, entendemos, foi o produto de um discurso hegemônico atravessada pela dicotomia entre o civilizado eo bárbaro que prevaleceu em um período que tinha sido erodida classificações coloniais.

This work aims to investigate the identity discourses that were built around the rural population of the province during the second half of the nineteenth and the early twentieth centuries. Browsing around the production of discourses allows us to understand how "what santiagueño is" was outlining in parallel to the construction of otherness. Methodologically we took advantage of the analysis produced by intelligentsia of the nineteenth century, foreign chronicles and school notebooks. This enabled us to understand social and political conditions in wich identity discourse on the santiagueño came up as a collective subject and how it operated in rural areas in relation to the old colonial Indian and mestizo identities. What santiagueño is, we understand, was the product of a hegemonic discourse crossed by the dichotomy of the civilized and barbarian that prevailed in a period when colonial classifications had been eroded.

Este trabajo tiene por objeto indagar los discursos identitarios que se construyeron en torno a la población rural de la provincia durante la segunda mitad del XIX y principios del XX. Explorar en la producción de discursos nos permite entender como se fue delineando "lo santiagueño" en paralelo a la construcción de alteridades. Metodológicamente nos valimos del análisis de obras de la intelectualidad del XIX, crónicas de foráneos y registros escolares. Esto nos posibilitó entender las condiciones sociales y políticas en las que fue surgiendo el discurso identitario sobre el santiagueño como sujeto colectivo y la forma en que operaba en las zonas rurales en relación a las viejas identificaciones coloniales de indio y mestizo. Lo santiagueño, entendemos, fue el producto de un discurso hegemónico atravesado por la dicotomía de lo bárbaro y lo civilizado que se imponía en un período en el que ya habían sido erosionadas las clasificaciones coloniales.

El presente trabajo trata sobre un documento del siglo XVIII depositado en el Archivo General de la Nación, Caracas,Venezuela, referente a un francés, botánico y colector de plantas medicinales. La revisión de estos añejos papeles y su comparación, tanto con crónicas de la época como con bibliografía reciente, permitió hacer deducciones sobre la fitoterapia del siglo XVIII y conocer algunas singularidades de las plantas empleadas. Un aspecto histórico interesante derivado de la investigación realizada fue constatar que algunos de los naturalistas que visitaron el territorio venezolano durante el siglo XVIII se vieron inmersos en situaciones embarazosas, producto de los conflictos existentes entre las potencias coloniales.

This paper deals with a document from the eighteenth century stored in the National Archives, Caracas,Venezuela, which refers to a French botanist and plant collector. The revision of these old papers and its comparison with ancient chronicles as well as with recent literature, allowed inferences about phytotherapy in the eighteenth century and about some singularities of the plants used. An interesting historical aspect was to attest that some of the naturalists who visited Venezuelan territory during the eighteenth century were immersed in embarrasing situations derived from the conflicts among the colonial powers.