Abstract The Puerto Pizarro mangrove is part of the Tumbes mangrove, the largest in Peru; it is also the mangrove with the greatest anthropic impact in the region; in this area, no studies have been carried out on the status of its population of Rhizophora mangle, the most important mangrove species in the Peruvian mangroves. The objective of this research was to establish the structural characteristics of R. mangle in the Puerto Pizarro mangrove. The study was carried out by subdividing the research area into three zones (A, B and C), in which 41 plots of 1 ha each were selected, in each plot a sub-area of 0.25 ha (50 m x 50 m) was taken). In these sub-areas, mangrove trees of the species Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia germinans were evaluated regarding their structural characteristics: diameter at breast height (DBH), height, basal area, density, frequency, dominance and index value of ecological importance (IVI). It was found that R. mangle had a greater DAP, height and basal area than the other species; also, higher density, frequency, dominance and relative IVI (adjusted to 100%) than the other species with values of 51.5%, 100%, 82.6% and 53.3%, respectively. The research findings allow us to conclude that the population of R. mangle in the Puerto Pizarro mangrove is a mature population, with a predominance of stems and latizales. However, its structural characteristics are not homogeneous throughout the Puerto Pizarro area, since zone A, with less anthropic impact and lower salinity, has R. mangle trees with better structural characteristics than those in zones B and C in which there is greater anthropic activity and greater salinity.

Resumen El manglar de Puerto Pizarro forma parte del manglar de Tumbes, el más grande del Perú; es también el manglar con mayor impacto antrópico en la región; en este no se han realizado estudios sobre el estado de su población de Rhizophora mangle, la especie de mangle más importante de los manglares peruanos. Esta investigación buscaba establecer las características estructurales de R. mangle en el manglar de Puerto Pizarro. El estudio se realizó subdividiendo el área de investigación en tres zonas (A, B y C), en las cuales se seleccionaron 41 parcelas de 1 ha cada una, en cada parcela se tomó una sub-área de 0,25 ha (50 m x 50 m). En estas sub-áreas se evaluaron los árboles de mangle de las especies Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa y Avicennia germinans respecto a sus características estructurales diámetro a la altura del pecho (DAP), altura, área basal, densidad, frecuencia, dominancia e índice de valor de importancia ecológica (IVI). Se encontró que R. mangle presentó un mayor DAP, altura y área basal que las otras especies; así también, mayor densidad, frecuencia, dominancia e IVI relativos (ajustados al 100%) que las otras especies con valores de 51,5%, 100%, 82,6% y 53,3%, respectivamente. Los hallazgos de la investigación permiten concluir que la población de R. mangle del manglar de Puerto Pizarro es una población madura, con predominancia de fustales y latizales. En Puerto Pizarro, sus características estructurales no son homogéneas, ya que la zona A, con menor impacto antrópico y menor salinidad, presenta árboles de R. mangle con mejores características estructurales que los de las zonas B y C, donde hay mayor actividad antrópica y mayor salinidad.

ABSTRACT Astructural, morphological and environmental description of tea mangrove individuals (genus Pelliciera) is presented. The specimens studied were found in eight sectors of Caño Salado which is a preservation zone in the Cispatá Bay Management Plan, using monitoring plots of 500 m2 (20 m x 25 m). The reported samples presented characters consistent with the recently redescribed species Pelliciera benthamii, found in forest relicts with a disperse spatial distribution. Reports of this species in the Cispatá bay are of great importance for the knowledge of the Colombian mangroves and to generate conservation and restoration initiatives that will have a positive impact on the populations of Pelliciera mangrove trees currently in state of threat.

RESUMEN Se presenta una descripción estructural, morfológica y ambiental de individuos de mangle de té (genero Pelliciera). Los especímenes estudiados fueron encontrados en ocho sectores de Caño Salado, que es una zona de preservación en el plan de manejo de la bahía de Cispatá, en parcelas de monitoreo de 500 m2 (20 m x 25 m). Las muestras registradas presentaron caracteres consistentes con la especie recientemente descrita Pelliciera benthamii encontrada en relictos de bosque con una distribución espacial dispersa. Los registros de esta especie en Cispatá son de gran importancia para el conocimiento de los manglares colombianos y para generar iniciativas de conservación y restauración que impacten positivamente las poblaciones de Pelliciera, actualmente en estado de amenaza.

ABSTRACT: In the present research, satellite images have been used, which with the appropriate processing have allowed to evaluate the existing vegetation cover in the territorial space of the protected natural area The Mangroves of Tumbes National Sanctuary - Peru and that was verified with a face-to-face tour. It was possible to determine the presence of 7 types of areas inside, 2 without water cover bodies and salty zones - sandbanks; and 5 with vegetation cover such as semi-dense dry forest, dense dry forest, low strip mangrove, middle strip mangrove and high strip mangrove. Mangrove covers occupy most of the interior of the natural area. Likewise, in the mangrove ecosystem the species with the highest value of index of importance (IVI) is the species Rhizophora mangle and in the dry forest ecosystem it is the species Caesalpinia paipai.

RESUMEN: En la presente investigación se ha utilizado imágenes satelitales, que con el adecuado procesamiento han permitido evaluar la cobertura vegetal existente el espacio territorial del área natural protegida Santuario Nacional Los Manglares de Tumbes - Perú y que se verificó con recorrido presencial. Se pudo determinar la presencia de 7 tipos de áreas en su interior, 2 sin cobertura cuerpos de agua y zonas salitrosas - bancos de arena; y 5 con cobertura vegetal como bosque seco semidenso, bosque seco denso, manglar de franja baja, manglar de franja media y manglar de franja alta. Las coberturas de manglar ocupan la mayor parte del interior del área natural. Así mismo, en el ecosistema manglar la especie con mayor valor de índice de importancia (IVI) es la especie Rhizophora mangle y en el ecosistema bosque seco lo es la especie Caesalpinia paipai.

Abstract Studies in the long-term recruitment and mortality of mangrove seedlings can help to understand mangrove demography and its relationship with climatic variables, environmental restoration and advances in the ecology of this ecosystem. A seven-year population dynamics study of seedling recruitment and mortality in cohorts of Rhizophora mangle L. was carried out to identify expansion processes and patterns of survival in the understory of mangrove forests on the Atlantic coast of Brazil. The present study aimed to evaluate the relationship between recruitment and mortality R. mangle seedlings at the population level, salinity, and climatic variables (precipitation, temperature and humidity). On an annual scale, seedling recruitment was positively correlated with mean temperature. Seedling density was negatively correlated with the number of recruits and positively with the number of deaths. The number of recruits was associated with dead seedlings, temperature and precipitation considering a population scale, without grouping the data. The seedling density in the stands increased with the number of dead seedlings. Our findings described the relationship between climate variability (durability and magnitude of the dry/rainy season) and the long-term population dynamics of R. mangle seedlings in a poorly studied region and from what moment, on a monthly and annual time scale, did this relationship become significant and changes occur. The findings of this study provide information on the population dynamics of the species that will help in understanding mangrove demography. These results have important implications for projections about the recruitment and survival of the species thinking about to long-term climate change that will modify current weather patterns and mangrove conservation efforts. longterm long term ecosystem sevenyear seven year L Brazil R level salinity precipitation, (precipitation humidity. humidity . humidity) scale deaths data durability dryrainy dry rainy season moment occur efforts

Resumo Estudos sobre o recrutamento e mortalidade de plântulas de mangue em longo prazo podem ajudar a compreender a demografia dos manguezais e sua relação com variáveis climáticas, restauração ambiental e avanços na ecologia deste ecossistema. Um estudo de dinâmica populacional de sete anos sobre recrutamento e mortalidade de plântulas em coortes de Rhizophora mangle L. foi realizado para identificar processos de expansão e padrões de sobrevivência no sub-bosque de manguezais na costa atlântica do Brasil. O presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a relação entre recrutamento e mortalidade de plântulas de R. mangle em nível populacional, salinidade e variáveis climáticas (precipitação, temperatura e umidade). Em escala anual, o recrutamento de plântulas correlacionou-se positivamente com a temperatura média. A densidade de plântulas correlacionou-se negativamente com o número de recrutas e positivamente com o número de mortes. O número de recrutas foi associado a plântulas mortas, temperatura e precipitação considerando escala uma populacional, sem agrupamento dos dados. A densidade de plântulas nos bosques aumentou com o número de plântulas mortas. Nossos resultados descreveram a relação entre a variabilidade climática (durabilidade e magnitude da estação seca/chuvosa) e a dinâmica populacional em longo prazo de plântulas de R. mangle em uma região pouco estudada e a partir de qual momento, em uma escala de tempo mensal e annual, essa relação tornou-se significativa e as mudanças ocorrem. As descobertas deste estudo fornecem informações sobre a dinâmica populacional da espécie que ajudarão na compreensão da demografia dos manguezais. Estes resultados tem implicações importantes para as projeções sobre o recrutamento e sobrevivência da espécie, considerando as alterações climáticas em longo prazo que modificarão os atuais padrões climáticos, e os esforços de conservação dos manguezais. ecossistema L subbosque sub bosque Brasil R precipitação, (precipitação umidade. umidade . umidade) anual correlacionouse correlacionou se média mortes mortas dados durabilidade seca/chuvosa secachuvosa seca chuvosa momento annual tornouse tornou ocorrem climáticos

Abstract Introduction: Fragmentation due to the change in land use because of anthropogenic pressures has caused loss of habitats for many bird species, causing from population mobilizations to local extinctions. Níspero in Cañas, is a coastal community in Costa Rica, which presents a mixed landscape, made up of mangrove patches and tropical dry forest, highly vulnerable due to aquaculture, industrialization, and the increase in the cattle frontier. One of the proposed strategies for the conservation of these ecosystems is the sustainable use of natural resources. However, there is still profound lack of knowledge about the bird communities present in these heterogeneous ecological matrices Objective: to characterize the diversity of birdlife in a fragmented landscape. Methods: From July 2018 to January 2019, bird counts were carried out. The sampling sites were classified into four categories: mangrove, pasture, shrimp farms and deciduous forest. General alpha richness, abundance, and diversity were determined for each site. Results: A total 1109 individuals distributed in 42 families, 97 genera and 125 species were registered. The most representative families were Ardeidae and Tyrannidae. Shrimp farms had the highest richness indexes, followed by mangrove and pasture areas. In terms of diversity, no significant differences were found. Conclusion: This first approach demonstrates the importance of efforts to integrate disturbed landscapes into conservation programs, given that they present new ecological configurations that can be exploited by various bird species.

Resumen Introducción: La fragmentación debido al cambio de uso de suelos por presiones antropogénicas ha provocado pérdida de hábitats para muchas especies de aves, causando desde movilizaciones poblacionales hasta extinciones locales. Níspero de Cañas, es una comunidad costera de Costa Rica, que presenta un paisaje mixto, compuesto por fragmentos de mangle y bosque seco tropical, altamente vulnerables debido a la acuicultura, industrialización y aumento de la frontera ganadera. Una de las estrategias propuestas para la conservación de estos ecosistemas es el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. Sin embargo, aún hay profundo desconocimiento de las comunidades de aves presentes en estas matrices ecológicas heterogéneas. Objetivo: caracterizar la diversidad de la avifauna en un paisaje fragmentado. De julio del 2018 a enero del 2019, se llevaron a cabo conteos mensuales de aves. Los sitios de muestreo se clasificaron en cuatro categorías: mangle, potrero, camaroneras y bosque caducifolio. Se determinó la riqueza, abundancia y diversidad alfa general para cada sitio. Resultados: Se registraron 1109 individuos distribuidos en 42 familias, 97 géneros y 125 especies. Las familias más representativas fueron Ardeidae y Tyrannidae. Las camaroneras presentaron los mayores índices de riqueza, seguido del mangle y los potreros. En términos de diversidad no se encontraron diferencias significativas. Conclusión: Este primer abordaje evidencia la importancia de los esfuerzos por integrar paisajes perturbados a los programas de conservación, ya que presentan configuraciones ecológicas nuevas que pueden ser aprovechadas por diversas especies de aves.

RESUMO Os manguezais são ecossistemas costeiros comuns em regiões tropicais de todo mundo. As interações ecológicas são recorrentes nesses ambientes florestais, entre elas, a herbivoria. Nesse sentido, o presente estudo objetivou avaliar a herbivoria foliar em três espécies vegetais, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia schaueriana e Rhizophora mangle e compará-la entre as estações seca e chuvosa, em um manguezal na Praia de Arpoeiras, em Acaraú, Ceará. Inicialmente, foram selecionadas e marcadas dez árvores de cada espécie vegetal com uma distância mínima de cinco metros uma da outra. Foram coletadas aleatoriamente dez folhas de cada árvore, 100 por espécie, contabilizando 300 por coleta e um total de 1800 folhas. Foram realizadas três coletas no período seco (agosto, setembro e outubro) e mais três no período chuvoso (janeiro, fevereiro e março). Em laboratório, as folhas foram mensuradas com relação à largura, comprimento e obtido o peso delas. As folhas foram classificadas quanto à injúria de herbivoria e tiveram sua área foliar e herbivorada restituída e calculada. As injúrias mais frequentes foram: raspagem, buraco I, buraco II, mancha I, mancha II, galha e mina. Contudo, outras estiveram presentes, entretanto, com baixa representatividade. As classificações buraco I e mina estiveram com maior frequência nas folhas de Laguncularia racemosa. Em Avicennia schaueriana foi mais frequente raspagem, mancha I e galha. Já em Rhizophora mangle, ocorreu com frequência buraco II, com grande perda da superfície da folha e injúrias indefinidas. Conclui-se que os herbívoros apresentam preferência entre as espécies vegetais e algumas injúrias são mais frequentes. A salinidade do ambiente de estudo foi um fator determinante para a herbivoria, pois foi na estação chuvosa que houve os maiores valores de herbivoria foliar nas espécies de mangues.

ABSTRACT Mangroves are common coastal ecosystems in tropical regions around the world. Ecological interactions are recurrent in these forest environments, including herbivory. In this sense, the present study aimed to evaluate leaf herbivory in three mangrove species, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia schaueriana and Rhizophora mangle, in a mangrove forest at Arpoeiras Beach, in Acaraú, Ceará and to compare it between the dry and rainy seasons in the region. Initially, ten trees of each mangrove species were selected and marked with a minimum distance of five meters apart. Next, ten leaves were randomly collected from each tree, 100 per species, i.e., 300 per collection, and a total of 1800. Three collections were made in the dry period (August, September and October) and three more in the rainy period (January, February and March). In the laboratory, the leaves were measured for width and length and weighed. They were classified according to herbivory damage and had their leaf area and herbivorous restored area were determined. The damages that were more frequent were scraping, hole I, hole II, spot I, spot II, gall and mine. Other damage was present but with low representativeness. Hole I and mine were more frequently in the leaves of Laguncularia racemosa. In Avicennia schaueriana, scraping, spot I and gall were more frequent. In Rhizophora mangle, hole II frequently occurred, with great loss of leaf surface and undefined damage. It is concluded that herbivores show preference among plant species and some injuries are more frequent. The salinity of the environment was a determining factor for herbivory, since it was in the rainy season that there were the highest values of leaf herbivory in mangrove species.

Resumen Introducción: Los manglares están en declive en el mundo, conocer su estructura y regeneración en diferentes niveles de alteración puede ayudar a comprender la dinámica poblacional ante situaciones de estrés. Objetivo: La meta principal del estudio fue analizar la estructura comunitaria y estimar la trayectoria de las poblaciones de Avicenia germinans en diferentes sitios de manglar que presentan tres niveles de alteración. Métodos: Ocho transectos de aproximadamente 500 m de largo y colocados de manera perpendicular a la laguna de Tampamachoco, Veracruz, interceptaron tres niveles de alteración en los sitios estudiados del bosque de manglar. En cada transecto, cuadrantes de 10 x 10 m, 5 x 5 m, y 1 x 1 m sirvieron para contar todos los árboles de mangle por especie y estadio de madurez en 2017 y 2018. Resultados: La especie más abundante fue: A. germinans seguida de Rhizophora mangle y Laguncularia racemosa. Con base en su abundancia, se encontraron diferencias significativas según los tres grados de alteración (AM R = 0.6, P < 0.001), ilustrado en un análisis de ordenación no métrico (nMDS). Una tabla de vida para A. germinans permitió un análisis poblacional que mostró una tasa intrínseca de incremento poblacional (r) negativa para los sitios que presentan alteración (-0.0027 u -0.0774) y positiva (0.0289) en el sitio sin alteración aparente. La supervivencia del estadio de plántula a juvenil varia de 50 % en el sitio no alterados a 5 y 4 % en los otros dos sitios. Conclusiones: Se necesitan medidas para incrementar la sobrevivencia de las plántulas y revertir la disminución de las trayectorias en los sitios con alteración, de otra forma el manglar tendrá una viabilidad reducida en el término medio.

Abstract Introduction: Globally, mangroves are declining; characterizing their structure and regeneration at different disturbance levels can help understand their responses to stressful situations. Objective: The study’s primary goal was to analyze the mangrove community structure and to estimate the populations’ trajectories of Avicenia germinans at different mangrove sites that present three levels of disturbance. Methods: Eight transects of approximately 500 m in length and laid perpendicular to the Tamapamchoco lagoon, Veracruz, intersected three levels of disturbance currently present on the mangrove forest. On each transect, 10 x 10 m, 5 x 5 m, and 1 x 1 m quadrants served to account for all mangrove trees by species and stage of maturity in 2017 and 2018. Results: The most abundant species was: A. germinans followed by Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia racemosa. Based on their abundance, we found significant differences for the three levels of disturbance (ANOSIM R = 0.6, P < 0.001) presented in a non-metric ordination (nMDS). A life table for A. germinans allowed a population analysis that showed an intrinsic rate of population increase (r) that was negative at the disturbed sites (-0.0027 and -0.0774) and positive (0.0289) at the apparently undisturbed site. Seedling to juvenile stage survival ranged from 50 % at the undisturbed site to 5 and 4 % at the disturbed sites. Conclusions: Measures to increase the survival of seedlings are necessary to reverse the decreasing population trajectories at the disturbed sites; otherwise, the mangrove will have reduced viability in the medium term.

Abstract Pseudoscorpions are arachnids that can occupy different microhabitats, some specialized. During an investigation of pseudoscorpions, the microhabitat preference was evaluated in coastal mangrove forests from Córdoba, Colombian Caribbean. A total of 1,063 individuals were collected, distributed in 4 families and 8 species. The most frequent species in each microhabitat were: Pachyolpium isolatum (n = 720) and Lechytia chthoniiformis (n = 190) and the less frequent one was: Parachernes aff. setosus (n = 6). The non-parametric estimators Jackknife 1, Jackknife 2 and bootstrap indicated good representativeness; 98.9% of the fauna was recorded, and a potential of 11 species was estimated for the mangrove forest fragments. The litter was the microhabitat that presented the highest average of individuals 56 ± 6.7 ind / month, and the coral remains presented the lowest average 1.8 ± 0.9 ind / month. The salinity of the soil, its humidity and the humidity of the litter, are the variables that can significantly influence the assembly of pseudoscorpions in mangrove forests. The measures of selectivity and / or preferences established a high specificity with each microhabitat, counting the soil, the litter and the bark of trees, with the highest frequency of use. These results highlight the importance of understanding the role of these arachnids in mangrove forests and allow increasing knowledge of their ecology, offering potential use as bioindicators.

Resumen Los pseudoescorpiones son arácnidos que pueden ocupar diferentes microhábitats, algunos especializados. Durante una investigación de pseudoescorpiones, se evaluó la preferencia de microhábitat en bosques de mangle costeros de Córdoba, Caribe colombiano. Un total de 1,063 individuos fueron recolectados, distribuidos en 4 familias y 8 especies. Las especies más frecuentes en cada microhábitat fueron Pachyolpium isolatum (n = 720) y Lechytia chthoniiformis (n =190) y la menos frecuente Parachernes aff. setosus (n = 6). Los estimadores no paramétricos jackknife 1, jackknife 2 y bootstrap indicaron una buena representatividad; se registró 98.9% de la fauna y se estimó un potencial de 11 especies para los fragmentos de bosque de mangle. La hojarasca fue el microhábitat que presentó el mayor promedio de individuos 56 ± 6.7 ind/mes, y el cascajo de coral presentó el menor promedio 1.8 ± 0.9 ind/mes. La salinidad del suelo, su humedad y la humedad de la hojarasca, son las variables que pueden influir significativamente el ensamblaje de pseudoescorpiones en los bosques de mangle. Las medidas de selectividad y/o preferencias establecieron una alta especificidad con cada microhábitat, contando el suelo, la hojarasca y la corteza de árboles, con mayor frecuencia de uso. Estos resultados destacan la importancia de comprender el papel de estos arácnidos en bosques de mangle y permiten incrementar el conocimiento de su ecología, ofreciendo un potencial uso como bioindicadores.

Resumo Este estudo teve como objetivo caracterizar a estrutura do manguezal da Lagoa do Roteiro no estado de Alagoas, através de parâmetros fitossociológicos. Para isso, foram traçados seis transectos, cada um dividido em três parcelas de 400 m2, distanciadas 10 metros entre si. Para a verificação dos fatores abióticos foram utilizados termômetro (temperatura) e refratômetro (salinidade). Foram coletadas ainda três amostras de sedimento, a uma profundidade de 20 cm, para a análise da granulometria e matéria orgânica. Foram mensuradas 449 árvores, apresentando árvores de Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa e Avicennia schaueriana. A densidade média da vegetação arbórea foi de 624 ind.ha-1, sendo a espécie Rhizophora mangle a que apresentou os maiores índices fitossociológicos, com valor de importância de 220,59%. Os valores dos parâmetros fitossociológicos apresentaram grande amplitude nas parcelas analisadas, ocorrendo desde plântulas até árvores adultas. Os valores de temperatura não apresentaram diferenças significativas entre as médias das parcelas franja, intermediária e interior, porém a salinidade se destacou, apresentando um aumento em relação ao interior do bosque. Houve predominância de sedimento areno-lodoso no manguezal estudado. Dessa maneira, a análise fitossociológica revelou elevada diversidade estrutural, em um ambiente onde os fatores abióticos contribuem para o estabelecimento das espécies arbóreas, e uma elevada contribuição da espécie Rhizophora mangle em todos os parâmetros fitossociológicos avaliados no ecossistema.

Abstract This study aimed to characterize the phytosociological structure of the mangrove in Roteiro Lagoon in the state of Alagoas, through phytosociological parameters. For that purpose, six transects were traced, divided into three 400 m2 plots each, 10 meters apart each other. To check the abiotic factors, a thermometer (temperature) and a refractometer (salinity) were used. Three sediment samples were also collected, at a depth of 20 cm, for the granulometry and organic matter analyses. A total of 449 trees were measured, showing trees Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa and Avicennia schaueriana. The average density of the arboreal vegetation was 624 ind.ha-1, with the Rhizophora mangle species showing the highest phytosociological indexes, with a value of 220.59%. The values of the phytosociological parameters showed great amplitude in the analyzed plots, occurring from seedlings to adult trees. The temperature values did not show significant differences between the average of the fringe, intermediate and interior portion, however, the salinity stood out, showing an increase in relation to the interior of the forest. There was a predominance of sandy silt in the studied mangrove forest. Thus, the phytosociological analysis revealed high structural diversity, in an environment where the abiotic factors contribute to the establishment of tree species and a high contribution of the Rhizophora mangle species in all phytosociological parameters assessed in the ecosystem.

Abstract : Mangroves have been considered as an important carbon storage, and in general, exceeding the carbon content of terrestrial forests. Even when mangrove aerial carbon sequestration has been studied in several regions of Mexico, the information at the Pacific coast is lacking. The aim of this work was to characterize the structure of riverine mangroves in order to determine height, coverage, DBH and to estimate the complexity and importance value indexes, as well to relate it with the carbon storage, in 32 circular sampling units (400 m2) at La Encrucijada Reserve, Chiapas. The carbon content was quantified according allometric equations for Neotropical mangrove species, with high structural development and we used a biomass to carbon conversion factor of 0.48. The influence of the interstitial sediment parameters (pH, salinity, temperature) on the stored carbon was determined using an analysis of variance and covariance. Mangrove density was 2103 ind ha-1, the tree mean height was 12 m; basal area, 18.7 m2 ha-1; coverage, 9.9 m2 and DAP, 8.4 cm. A complexity index of 40.1 was recorded; the order of importance of the species was Rhizophora mangle / Avicennia germinans / Laguncularia racemosa. The carbon store was 87.0 Mg ha-1. Structural parameters showed a high correlation (R = 1.00, 0.94 and 0.84) with the mangrove biomass. In function of this structure, this ecosystem was classified as a successional stage of intermediate community with a high structural complexity.

Resumen: Se ha destacado la importancia de los manglares en el almacén de carbono, el cual se estima que supera significativamente al contenido de los bosques terrestres. Aunque la cuantificación del carbono en el componente arbóreo de los manglares se ha realizado en varias regiones de México, la costa del Pacífico sur ha sido escasamente analizada. El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar la estructura de los manglares ribereños en 32 unidades de muestreo circulares (400 m2) en la Reserva La Encrucijada, Chiapas, caracterizando su altura, cobertura, diámetro a la altura del pecho y la estimación de los índices de complejidad y valor de importancia; así como su relación con el almacén de carbono. El carbono se cuantificó con ecuaciones alométricas para especies de mangles neotropicales con alto desarrollo estructural y el factor de conversión de biomasa a carbono de 0.48. La influencia de las variables estructurales e intersticiales (pH, salinidad, temperatura) en el carbono almacenado se determinó con análisis de varianza y covarianza. El manglar presentó una densidad de 2103 individuos por hectárea (ind ha-1) y valores promedio de altura de 12 m; de área basal, 18.7 m2 ha-1; cobertura, 9.9 m2 y diámetro a la altura del pecho, 8.4 cm. Se registró un índice de complejidad de 40.1; el orden de importancia de las especies fue Rhizophora mangle/Avicennia germinans/Laguncularia racemosa. El almacén de carbono arbóreo fue 87.0 Mg ha-1. Los parámetros estructurales presentaron alta correlación (R = 1.0, 0.94 y 0.85) con la biomasa del manglar. Según su estructura, este ecosistema se clasificó en la etapa sucesional de comunidad intermedia y con alta complejidad estructural.

Resumen Los manglares representan un ambiente de gran heterogeneidad y baja diversidad de especies vegetales que tienen adaptaciones estructurales y fisiológicas ligadas a un ambiente de alta salinidad. Laguncularia racemosa es una especie de árbol típico en los manglares y en zonas de transición. El objetivo de este estudio fue comparar la anatomía de la madera de L. racemosa (Combretaceae) en dos bosques distintos (manglares y bosques de transición) que tienen diferentes condiciones edáficas. Para esto se obtuvieron muestras de madera y suelo en marzo 2016. Se analizaron los contenidos nutricionales de una muestra de suelo de 15 cm de espesor por tipo de bosque. Además, se seleccionaron cinco árboles de mangle en cada formación para el análisis de la anatomía de la madera y se tomó una muestra de cada individuo por área. Se prepararon láminas histológicas y se separaron los materiales siguiendo métodos convencionales para estudios de anatomía de la madera. El análisis del suelo mostró que en el manglar hay mayor contenido de fósforo, potasio y calcio. El suelo del bosque de transición tiene menor salinidad del agua capilar y pH del suelo, probablemente debido a los altos niveles de aluminio. Los atributos anatómicos difirieron entre las distintas poblaciones de bosque. En los distintos aspectos de la madera evaluados, se obtuvieron valores más altos en los individuos del manglar comparados con los de la población del bosque de transición: longitud de los elementos de los vasos (375.79 mm), diámetro de los vasos tangenciales (75.85 mm), frecuencia de vasos (11.90 mm) y longitud de la fibra (889.89 mm). Además, la altura de los rayos de parénquima fue mayor en las muestras del bosque de transición (392.80 mm) mientras que la población de manglar presentó rayos más anchos (29.38 mm). La estructura del xilema secundario en la especie estudiada aparentemente responde a los parámetros edáficos y muestra variaciones que le permiten adecuarse a las condiciones ambientales. La población del bosque de transición mostró un xilema secundario que invierte más en protección que la población del manglar.

Abstract Mangroves represent an environment of great heterogeneity and low diversity of plant species that have structural and physiological adaptations linked to a high salinity environment. Laguncularia racemosa is a typical tree species in mangroves and transitional zones. This study aimed to compare the wood anatomy of L. racemosa (Combretaceae) in two different forests (mangroves and transitional forests), which have different soil conditions. For this, we obtained wood and soil samples in March 2016. We analyzed soil nutritional contents in one 15 cm deep soil sample per forest type. In addition, we selected five mangrove trees in each formation for wood anatomy analysis and took one wood sample per individual, per area. We prepared histological slides and separated materials following standard methods for wood anatomy studies. Soil analysis showed that mangrove soils had higher phosphorus, potassium and calcium contents. The transitional soil had lower pore water salinity and soil pH, probably due to high aluminum levels. Anatomical attributes differed between different forest populations. In the different wood aspects evaluated, we obtained higher values in mangrove individuals when compared to the transitional forest population: vessel elements length (375.79 mm), tangential vessels diameter (75.85 mm), frequency of vessels (11.90 mm) and fiber length (889.89 mm). Moreover, parenchyma rays height was larger in the samples of the transitional forest (392.80 mm), while the mangrove population presented wider rays (29.38 mm). The structure of the secondary xylem in the studied species apparently responds to edaphic parameters and shows variations that allow it to adjust to the environmental conditions. The population of the transitional forest showed a secondary xylem that invests more in protection than the mangrove population. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(2): 647-657. Epub 2018 June 01.

Abstract Spectral discrimination of mangrove leaves is the first step in classifying remotely sensed imagery of mangrove forests. The objective of this study was to analyze spectroscopic data on leaves from the upper and lower parts of mangrove canopies to discriminate species and physiognomic types. Leaf samples from the upper and lower parts of the canopies of 3 mangrove species (Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle) in 2 physiognomic types (basin and fringe) were collected during 2 seasons (dry and rainy). Probability distribution and first-derivative plots were generated for every wavelength (450-1,000 nm) detected in all samples. With the plots, optimal wavelengths were selected and subsequently verified with a canonical discriminant analysis. Results indicated that all species in basin mangrove forests showed a unique distinction between the upper and lower leaves during the dry season. By contrast, species in fringe mangrove forests did not show this difference during both seasons. Optimal wavelengths for species discrimination were located between 540-560 nm and 700-720 nm, which correspond to the green and red-edge wavebands, respectively. Future studies using remote sensing data with the aforementioned wavebands can be conducted to discriminate physiognomic mangrove forest types and to increase accuracy in the classification of mangroves at the canopy level on the Pacific coast of Mexico.

Resumen La discriminación foliar de mangles por medio de técnicas espectroscópicas es el primer paso para clasificar imágenes de sensores remotos de bosques de mangle. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar datos espectroscópicos de hojas de la parte superior y la parte inferior del dosel arbóreo para poder discriminar especies y condiciones fisiognómicas en un bosque de mangle. Muestras de hojas de la parte superior y la parte inferior de los doseles de 3 especies de mangle (Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa y Rhizophora mangle) en 2 condiciones fisiognómicas (cuenca y borde) fueron recolectadas durante 2 temporadas (estiaje y lluvia). Gráficas de distribución de probabilidad y de primera derivada fueron generadas para cada una de las longitudes de onda (450-1,000 nm) de todas las muestras. Con base en las gráficas, las longitudes de onda óptimas fueron seleccionadas y, posteriormente, comprobadas con un análisis discriminante canónico. Los resultados indicaron que todas las especies de mangle tipo cuenca mostraron una separación única entre las hojas de la parte superior y la parte inferior del dosel durante la temporada de estiaje. Por el contrario, los mangles tipo borde no presentaron esta diferencia durante ambas temporadas. Las longitudes de onda óptimas para la discriminación de especies fueron localizadas entre 540-560 nm y 700-720 nm, correspondientes a las bandas verde y borde del rojo, respectivamente. Estudios posteriores con datos de sensores remotos que contengan dichas longitudes de onda pueden ser empleados para discriminar condiciones fisiognómicas en bosques de mangle e incrementar la precisión en clasificaciones de mangles a nivel de dosel en la costa mexicana del Pacífico.

RESUMO Este estudo objetivou caracterizar a composição florística e a estrutura em bosques de manguezais nos municípios de Soure, Maracanã e Salinopólis no estado do Pará. Em cada município foram delimitadas três parcelas de 10 x 50 m totalizando 0,15 ha, registrando-se as espécies e medindo-se o DAP e altura. Foram calculadas a densidade, frequência e dominância relativas, índice de valor de cobertura e de importância. As espécies típicas encontradas foram Rhizophora mangle L., Rhizophora racemosa G.F.W. Meyer, Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn. e Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Rhizophora racemosa foi encontrada somente em Soure e, Laguncularia racemosa apenas em Salinópolis. O bosque de Soure apresentou maior valor médio em diâmetro e altura. Nos três municípios Avicennia germinans obteve maior diâmetro e altura. A maior área basal para indivíduos vivos ocorreu em Soure e Salinas, e para indivíduos mortos, em Maracanã, ambos para a classe > 10,0 cm de DAP. Em Soure não foram registrados indivíduos mortos. Os bosques apresentaram alto grau de desenvolvimento estrutural e ajustado ao padrão encontrado na costa norte brasileira. Informações conjuntas acerca da composição florística, abundância, densidade e parâmetros que demonstrem o grau de estrutura dos mesmos, além do registro e análise de indivíduos mortos, são bons indicadores do estado de conservação desse ecossistema. Conclui-se que os manguezais estão em bom estado de conservação. Entretanto, ações preventivas de manejo e conservação são fundamentais para garantir a manutenção de seus recursos.

ABSTRACT This study aimed to characterize the floristic composition and structure of mangroves in three municipalities in Pará, to identify possible conservation and environmental change indicators. At each site, three plots were delimited in 10 x 50 m, registering the species present and measuring DAP and height. Were analized density, frequency and dominance, hedge value index and importance. Typical species found were Rhizophora mangle L., Rhizophora racemosa G.F.W. Meyer, Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn. e Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Rhizophora racemosa found only in Soure and Laguncularia racemosa only in Salinópolis. The Soure of forest had higher mean values of height and diameter and, in the three areas, Avicennia germinans showed the highest values of height and diameter. The largest basal area values for living individuals occurred in Soure and Salinas, and dead individuals, the greatest contribution was in Maracanã, both for the class > 10.0 cm DBH. In Soure were not recorded dead individuals. The woods had a high degree of structural development and are adjusted to the pattern found in Brazil’s northern coast. Joint information about the floristic composition, abundance, density and parameters that show the degree of structure thereof other than registration and analysis of dead individuals, are good indicators of this ecosystem conservation status. Concluded at good state of conservation of mangroves in this region. However, preventive actions management and conservation are essential to ensure the maintenance of its resources.

ResumenLa laguna costera de La Mancha, en el Golfo de México, tiene una boca que se cierra y abre estacionalmente, lo que ocasiona importantes fluctuaciones en los niveles de inundación y que la zona intermareal se exponga frecuentemente a una alta radiación solar, altas temperaturas y su consecuente desecación. Se llevó a cabo un experimento de campo de Noviembre-2000 a Septiembre-2001 para evaluar el efecto acumulado de la variación en el nivel de inundación sobre la colonización y supervivencia de los invertebrados intermareales sésiles sobre substratos artificiales en el bosque de manglar de borde. Un total de 72 tubos de PVC de 2 m de largo fueron recubiertos con cemento para semejar rizóforos (raíces aéreas) de Rhizophora mangle. Luego fueron encajados en el fango en cuatro estaciones de muestreo (18 por estación: 9 en sitio sombreado y 9 en sitio soleado), y fueron retirados en grupos de 6 de cada estación de muestreo (3 de cada sitio sombreado y 3 de cada sitio soleado), sin reemplazo, al término de cada época climática (nortes, seca y lluvias). Además, se monitoreó la condición abierta-cerrada de la boca estuarina y el nivel de inundación durante el período de 308 días que duró el experimento. Se registró la distribución temporal, espacial y vertical de la Riqueza específica (S) y de la abundancia de individuos vivos y muertos, y los datos fueron analizados mediante ANDEVA. Únicamente siete especies colonizaron los substratos, la mayoría de ellas se registraron todo el año y en todas las estaciones de muestreo. No se observó una sucesión estacional de las especies. Al final del experimento, se obtuvo una supervivencia del 20 % de los epibiontes. El poliqueto Ficopomatus miamiensis fue la especie más abundante pero presentó una supervivencia significativamente menor que las otras especies encontradas (0 - 14 %). Los epibiontes prefirieron establecerse en sitios sombreados que en sitios soleados sin importar la estación de muestreo ni la época climática. En conclusión, la colonización de los substratos artificiales fue exitosa pero la mayoría de los individuos murieron debido a la prolongada exposición y desecación después de que la boca estuarina fue abierta por los pescadores locales.Las maniobras de excavación de la barrera arenosa por los pescadores locales interrumpen los ciclos naturales de inundación de la laguna, lo cual puede tener consecuencias futuras sobre el desarrollo de las comunidades del manglar.

AbstractLa Mancha coastal lagoon, in the Gulf of Mexico, has an inlet that opens and closes seasonally, causing important fluctuations in flood-levels and exposing the intertidal zone to high solar radiation, high temperatures and desiccation. With the aim to examine the accumulated effect of variation in flood-levels on colonization and survival of sessile intertidal invertebrates on artificial substrates in a fringe mangrove forest, a field experiment was conducted from November-2000 to September-2001. A total of 72 PVC-stakes 2 m long were encased with cement to resemble rhizophores (prop roots) of Rhizophora mangle. They were then embedded in mud at four sampling stations (18 per station: 9 in a shaded site and 9 in a sunny site), and groups of 6 were collected from each sampling station (3 from each shaded site and 3 from each sunny site) without replacement at the end of each climatic period (Eastern winds, dry and rainy). The open-closed condition of the inlet and the flood-level were monitored during different days throughout the 308-day experiment period. Temporal, spatial and vertical distribution of Species richness (S) and abundance of living and dead individuals were registered, and the data was analyzed by ANOVA. Only seven species colonized the substrates, the majority of them were recorded throughout the year and in all sampling stations. There was no seasonal succession of species. At the end of the experiment, only 20 % of the epibionts had survived. The polychaete Ficopomatus miamiensis was the most abundant, but had significantly lower survival than the other species (0-14 %). Epibionts preferred to settle in shaded sites rather than sunny ones regardless of the sampling station and the climatic season. In conclusion, artificial substrate colonization was successful but the majority of epibionts died because of long exposure and desiccation after the inlet was opened by local fishermen. Manual digging of the sand-barrier by local fishermen, disrupts the natural flooding cycles of the lagoon, and could severely impact the future development of mangrove communities.

ResumenLa laguna de Barra de Navidad es un humedal costero de importancia internacional (sitio RAMSAR) y está incluida entre los 81 sitios prioritarios de manglar de México. Una de las características de mayor valor de la laguna, es la presencia de bosques de mangle en buen estado de conservación. El objetivo de nuestro trabajo, fue medir la producción de hojarasca del manglar y los factores ambientales que pueden influir en su dinámica.El manglar fue dividido en siete zonas y las recolectas de hojarasca se realizaron mensualmente entre noviembre 2011 y octubre 2012, mediante recolectores cuadrados de 0.25 m2 construidos con malla de mosquitero (1 mm) y colocados a 1.3 m del suelo. De forma simultánea, se midieron varias variables abióticas en el agua intersticial recolectada en pozos permanentes en cada zona, mediante un Sistema Multi-Sonda, YSI-556-M. El valor total promedio de producción de hojarasca, según el área de cada zona, fue de 19.12 ± 1.23 gPS/m2.mes (2.29 t/ha.año). Esta baja productividad se atribuye al clima seco de la región y a la poca amplitud de las mareas. Avicennia germinans y Laguncularia racemosa produjeron poco más del 80 % de toda la hojarasca, mientras que Rhizophora mangle sólo contribuyó con el 16 % y Conocarpus erectus< 4%. Existe una correlación significativa entre las variables abióticas del sustrato (principalmente la salinidad y la profundidad del agua intersticial) y la cantidad de hojarasca producida. Se concluye que, existen variaciones espaciales significativas en las variables abióticas del sustrato que se correlacionan con diferencias en la composición por especies del manglar y que, junto con las etapas de los ciclos vitales de esas especies, generan variaciones significativas en la cantidad y composición de la hojarasca producida. La investigación futura se enfocará en la cuantificación de las variaciones espaciales de la estructura del bosque y su relación con la producción de hojarasca.

AbstractBarra de Navidad lagoon is a coastal wetland of international importance (Ramsar site) and it is included among the 81 Mexican mangrove priority sites. One of the most valued characteristics of this lagoon is the presence of mangrove forest in a good conservation state. The goal of our research was the measurement of mangrove litter production and environmental factors influencing its dynamics. The mangrove area was divided into seven zones and litterfall was monthly sampled from November 2011 to October 2012 using 0.25 m2 square collectors made with mosquito mesh (1 mm) and positioned at 1.3 m above the ground. Abiotic variables of the interstitial water were measured simultaneously at each zone in permanent plots using a multi-parameter probe, YSI-556-M. Total mean value of litterfall production, weighted by zone surface, was 19.12 ± 1.23 gPS/m2.mo (2.29 t/ha.year). This low productivity is a consequence of the region's dry climate and low tide range. The species Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa produced more than 80 % of total litterfall, while Rhizophora mangle contributed only 16 % and Conocarpus erectus < 4 %. A significant correlation between litterfall production and abiotic variables was found (e.g. salinity and interstitial water depth). We concluded that there are significant spatial variations in soil abiotic variables which are correlated with differences in mangrove species composition, and produce, together with the life cycles stages of those species, significant variations in the quantity and composition of litterfall. Future research will be focused on quantifying spatial variations in forest structure and their relationship with litterfall production.