RESUMEN A partir de una comprensión amplia de la sombra como concepto espacial, este ensayo propone una revisión bibliográfica sobre las representaciones de la sombra en la historia de la pintura tradicional occidental, tanto en su dimensión técnica como simbólica. A través de imágenes específicas, el texto comenta la temática, limitándose a un marco temporal, desde los mitos fundacionales de la pintura en la Edad Antigua hasta el siglo XVI. El choque teórico confronta una idea preestablecida de que las representaciones de sombras anteriores al Cinquecento ocurrían sólo de manera intuitiva. Con ello buscamos demostrar que, a pesar de las limitaciones técnicas de la pintura medieval, las sombras ya eran utilizadas como elementos articuladores de significado al ofrecer testimonio y representación de alguna corporalidad. espacial occidental simbólica específicas temática temporal XVI intuitiva medieval corporalidad

ABSTRACT Starting from a broad understanding of the shadow as a spatial concept, this essay proposes a bibliographic review on the representations of shadow in the history of traditional Western painting, both in its technical and symbolic dimensions. Through specific images, the text comments on this theme, limiting itself to a time frame, since the founding myths of painting in the Ancient Age until the 16th century. The theoretical clash confronts a pre-established idea that the shadow representations prior to the Cinquecento happened only in an intuitive way. Thereby, it seeks to demonstrate, despite the technical limitations of medieval painting, that shadows were already used as articulating elements of meaning when offering testimony and representation of some corporeality. concept dimensions images theme frame th century preestablished pre established way Thereby demonstrate corporeality

RESUMO Partindo de um amplo entendimento da sombra como conceito espacial, o presente ensaio propõe uma revisão bibliográfica sobre as representações de sombra na história da pintura ocidental tradicional, tanto em suas dimensões técnicas quanto simbólicas. Por meio de imagens pontuais, o texto comenta este tema, limitando-se a um recorte temporal, desde os mitos fundadores da pintura na Idade Antiga até o século XVI. O embate teórico confronta uma ideia preestabelecida de que as representações de sombra anteriores ao Cinquecento ocorreram apenas de maneira intuitiva. Com isso, busca-se demonstrar que, apesar das limitações técnicas da pintura medieval, as sombras já eram utilizadas como elementos articuladores de significado ao oferecer testemunho e representação de alguma corporeidade. espacial tradicional simbólicas pontuais tema limitandose limitando se temporal XVI intuitiva isso buscase busca medieval corporeidade

RESUMEN El estudio de la historia étnica de una región es fundamental para comprender y apreciar la diversidad cultural, fomentar la identidad y la pertenencia de los pueblos, entender las interacciones históricas, contribuir al conocimiento histórico general y promover la justicia social y la inclusión. Dada su importancia, en el artículo se examina la historia étnica de la región de Nakhchivan en Azerbaiyán desde los primeros tiempos hasta la actualidad. Los estudios realizados muestran que Nakhchivan fue históricamente una parte integral de Azerbaiyán. En el territorio de Nakhchivan existen numerosos asentamientos pertenecientes a la Edad de Piedra; entre ellos destacan los asentamientos de Gazma y Kultepa. A partir del tercer y segundo milenio antes de Cristo, el territorio de Nakhchivan fue una de las regiones habitadas por tribus de habla turca. En la antigüedad, las tribus Nakhch, Gerger, Cimmerian, Scythian, Sak y, a principios de la Edad Media, Huns, Sabirs, Pechenegs, Khazars y Oghuz Turks emigraron a todos los territorios de Azerbaiyán, incluido Nakhchivan, y se establecieron allí. Todos estos han conservado su existencia en los topónimos e hidrónimos que existen actualmente en los territorios de Nakhchivan.

ABSTRACT The study of the ethnic history of a region is fundamental to understanding and appreciating cultural diversity, fostering peoples' identity and belonging, understanding historical interactions, contributing to general historical knowledge, and promoting social justice and inclusion. Given its importance, the article examines the ethnic history of the Nakhchivan region of Azerbaijan from early times to the present. Conducted studies show that Nakhchivan was historically an integral part of Azerbaijan. In the territory of Nakhchivan there are numerous settlements belonging to the Stone Age; among them the settlements of Gazma and Kultepa stand out. Starting from the 3rd and 2nd millennium BC, the territory of Nakhchivan was one of the regions inhabited by Turkic-speaking tribes. In ancient times, the Nakhch, Gerger, Cimmerian, Scythian, Sak tribes, and in the early Middle Ages the Huns, Sabirs, Pechenegs, Khazars and Oghuz Turks migrated to all territories of Azerbaijan, including Nakhchivan, and settled there. All of these have preserved their existence in the place names and hydronyms that currently exist in the Nakhchivan territories.

RESUMEN En el campo teórico general de las doctrinas económicas, tal y como las conocemos, surgieron una serie de nociones y reivindicaciones económicas entre la Edad Moderna y la Contemporánea, iniciando y culminando en el periodo de la ilustración según la Historia Universal; por ello, es imperativo evocar las principales tesis político-económicas que se han presentado a lo largo del tiempo, para contrastarlas con su realidad socio-económica a nivel mundial, y ante una nueva pandemia devastadora denominada Covid-19. Posteriormente, de manera cronológica, se muestran las aproximaciones o propuestas sobre las diversas crisis y los fenómenos socioeconómicos, siendo este el enfoque del presente trabajo. Las valoraciones epistemológicas que se exponen en el artículo científico se realizan sobre la base de una revisión bibliográfica histórica de principios y aseveraciones económicas realizadas por distintos autores y sus pensamientos distintivos, en correspondencia con los periodos en cuestión, que buscan explicar el fenómeno ocurrido. El objetivo del presente trabajo se enfoca en efectuar un análisis desde sus perspectivas comparado con los desenlaces del problema epidémico en el escenario mundial. A tales efectos se ha utilizado exclusivamente un análisis bibliográfico descriptivo bajo un enfoque fenomenológico, analítico, cualitativo e inductivo, que contribuye a generar una nueva visión sobre las teorías económicas actuales.

ABSTRACT In the general theoretical field of economic doctrines, as we know them, a series of economic notions and claims emerged between the Modern and Contemporary Ages, beginning and culminating in the period of the Enlightenment according to Universal History; therefore, it is imperative to evoke the main political-economic theses that have been presented over time, to contrast them with their socio-economic reality on a global level, and in the face of a new devastating pandemic called Covid-19. Subsequently, in chronological order, the approaches or proposals on the various crises and socio-economic phenomena are shown, this being the focus of the present work. The epistemological assessments presented in the scientific article are made on the basis of a historical bibliographical review of economic principles and assertions made by different authors and their distinctive thoughts, in correspondence with the periods in question, which seek to explain the phenomena that have occurred. The aim of this paper focuses on an analysis from their perspectives compared to the outcomes of the epidemic problem on the world stage. For this purpose, a descriptive bibliographic analysis has been used exclusively under a phenomenological, analytical, qualitative and inductive approach, which contributes to generate a new vision of the current economic theories.

Abstract Securing abundance was a responsibility shared by the rulers of the Indo-European peoples since ancient times. As part of the third Dumézilian function, it was articulated in a tri-functional scheme that ensured the functioning of the Indo-European cosmos. This schematic organization survived the Christianization of Europe and was planned both in the tri-functional order of society and in the royal discourse. The identity of the king, his duties and powers were derived from this scheme, although the third function, being the earthliest of the three, was sublimated in more refined expressions. The feasts, the provision of food and wealth, the proper administration and the prosperity of the kingdom, in men and goods, are ways through which he manages to retain his image of rex abundantiae. In the context of these considerations, to analyze various characterizations of Alfonso XI and situations of his public life, which in appearance would respond to the conjunctural image of a courteous king, typical of the time, will allow us to understand the reasons why the chronicle or apologetic discourse is concerned with rescuing abundance as an inherent facet of the good medieval king. That is, it will enable us to read the feasts and the generosity in political terms.

Resumen Garantizar abundancia fue una responsabilidad compartida por los gobernantes de los pueblos indoeuropeos desde tiempos antiguos. Como parte de la tercera función duméziliana, se articula en un esquema trifuncional que garantizaba el funcionamiento del cosmos indoeuropeo; una organización esquemática que sobrevivió a la cristianización de Europa y se proyectó tanto en el orden trifuncional de la sociedad como en el discurso regio. La identidad del rey, sus obligaciones y facultades, derivaron de este esquema, aunque la tercera función, por ser la más terrenal de las tres, se sublimó en expresiones más refinadas. Los festines, la provisión de comida y riqueza, la buena administración y prosperidad del reino, en hombres y bienes, son caminos por medio de los cuales se logra detentar su imagen de rex abundantiae. En el marco de estas consideraciones, analizar diversas caracterizaciones de Alfonso XI y situaciones de su vida pública, que en apariencia responderían a la imagen coyuntural de un rey cortés, propio de la época, permitirá entender las razones por las que el discurso cronístico o apologético se preocupan por rescatar la abundancia como faceta inherente al buen rey medieval. Es decir, nos posibilitará leer la fiesta y la generosidad en clave política.

Abstrac A poesia tem uma história de milhares de anos na China e pode-se dizer que é a jóia brilhante na coroa da literature chinesa, ocupando uma proporção maior em sua história. Originando-se de cantos folclóricos, a poesia chinesa produziu um grande número de exemplos brilhantes, desde a dinastia Zhou Dynasty ocidental (1046-771 BC) até o período Chunqiu [primavera e outono] (770-476 BC). A China tem mantido, desde os tempos antigos, uma tradição de educação em poesia, que é usada para educar as pessoas e estimular sua inteligência. Através da leitura, estudo e escrita de poesia, é possível instruir e cultivar o caráter de jovens alunos, assim como promover o pensamento criativo, dialética lógica e consciência humanística de crianças. Além disso, aprender e escrever poesia tem o efeito de cultivar o próprio temperamento, permitindo que pessoas de todos os estratos sociais, ocupações profissionais e idades limpem e purifiquem suas mentes. O reino da poesia tem o mesmo efeito de acalmar a alma da crença religiosa. Este artigo mostra os destaques de três milênios de poesia chinesa para leitores ou estudiosos cuja língua nativa não é o chinês.

Abstract Poetry has a history of thousands of years in China and can be said to be the shining jewel in the crown of Chinese literature, occupying a major proportion in her history. Having originated from folk songs, the Chinese poetry has produced a large number of brilliant examples from the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC) to the Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn) Period (770-476 BC). China has, since ancient times, maintained a tradition of education in poetry, which is used to educate the people and arouse their intelligence. Through the reading, studying and writing of poetry, it is possible to instruct and cultivate the character of young pupils, as well as to promote children’s creative thinking, logical dialectics and humanistic consciousness. In addition, reciting, learning and writing poetry has the ability to cultivate one’s temperament, allowing people of all social strata, professional occupation and age to cleanse and purify their minds. The realm of poetry has the same effect of calming the soul as religious belief. This article shows the highlights of three millennia of Chinese poetry to the readers or scholars whose native language is not Chinese.

Resumo Ao adotar a história global como método, o artigo busca analisar, na construção do pensamento científico ocidental do século XIII, as articulações entre as formas de pensamento e os conhecimentos produzidos em distintas temporalidades e espacialidades históricas. A partir da análise da obra Image du Monde, escrita por Gossouin de Metz, por volta de 1245, pretende-se reconectar o ambiente intelectual francês aos espaços de circulação dos saberes grego antigo e árabe medieval. Nessa reflexão, as profundas mudanças na percepção da natureza do homem medieval e a busca por explicações científicas do mundo e de tudo o que nele existe ocupam um lugar central.

Abstract By adopting the Global History as a method, this article analyses, in the construction of the western scientific thought of the 13th century, the articulations between the ways of thinking and the knowledge that was produced in distinct temporalities and historical spatialities. From the analysis of the Image du Mond, a literary work written by Gossouin de Metz, around 1245, we intend to reconnect the french intellectual environment with the circulation of both ancient greek and medieval arabic knowledge. In this reflection, the profound changes on the medieval man’s perception of the nature, and the search for scientific explanations about the Earth and everything that exists in it, occupy a crucial place.

In pre-democratic - also pre-modern - times, religion had been at the centre of much of human life, filling the private as well as the public realm of people's daily existence. However, with the change to democratic rule in major countries in the modern world (see, most influentially, Article 1 of the French Constitution after the French Revolution and the First Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, influencing all other democracies in their wake), religion has for the most part reflexively been sidelined from public life. Or has it? Does religion not still hold a special place in law in democratic societies, but now in reverse? Firstly, whereas matters of religious faith had throughout the greater part of human history been included in matters of politics, it is now as a matter of course of law excluded, purposely so. Religion is thus still a 'special case', a unique aspect of humanity when compared to all other matters, in law as much as in politics and other aspects of public life. Secondly, in the post-secular cultural climate dawning across the world, matters of faith (religion, spirituality) are no longer as stringently excluded from public life, which impacts directly on how religion is touched upon in law, sociology, philosophy, music and other academic disciplines too. Our dawning post-secular age is bringing something new. Two scholars, who have been doing foundational work in this regard, have done so fully in parallel, not taking cognisance of the mutualities in their academic contributions. Otto in Munich, Germany, has been combining his two areas of expertise, the Pentateuch in the Hebrew Bible and the sociologist Max Weber, to indicate the trajectory through history of democratic impulses from Ancient Near Eastern founding documents into the current era. Benson in Sydney, Australia, has on his part been drawing on his expertise in law as practised in Canada and taught in Europe, South Africa and Australia to indicate how, in inclusively liberal democracies, law cannot justifiably be used to exclude religion from the public domain, as has been the usual modern case. Drawing together these parallel contributions, Lombaard places these initiatives within the emerging post-secular climate, which augurs a different way of being religious or non-religious, publicly as much as privately, in democratic societies in our time.

RESUMO: No presente estudo foram examinadas as características, incluindo espécies, número, origem, distribuição e estrutura etária de árvores antigas e famosas no distrito de Laoshan, cidade de Qingdao, província de Shandong, China. Para tal empregou-se um levantamento de campo e análises quantitativas de dados estatísticos e literatura relevante disponível. As principais questões relativas à sua conservação foram investigadas e medidas de conservação prioritárias são propostas. Os resultados mostraram que existem 290 árvores antigas e famosas, compreendendo 42 espécies, 34 gêneros e 26 famílias. Estes incluíram quatro tipos de árvores antigas e famosas com origens diferentes, como as árvores religiosas, árvores silvestres naturalmente preservadas, árvores agrícolas ou usadas como oferendas, e árvores exóticas originarias de outros locais. Há relativamente mais espécies nativas e comparativamente mais árvores mais velhas. Muitas árvores antigas e famosas são distribuídas na área cênica Mountain Lao e muitas delas pertencem a gêneros temperados. Atualmente, a conservação de árvores antigas e famosas no Distrito de Laoshan é desafiadora devido a questões como deterioração do habitat, efeitos severos de perigos naturais, pragas e doenças, enfraquecimento da função fisiológica e manejo inadequado. Medidas foram propostas, por exemplo, inspecionar regularmente árvores antigas e famosas, restaurar seus habitats, reforçar controles de pragas e doenças, promover estudos sobre tecnologias de conservação, melhorar práticas de manejo, aumentar subsídios e reformar o sistema de propriedade de árvores antigas e famosas.

ABSTRACT: This study aimed to examined the characteristics of ancient and famous trees in Laoshan District, Qingdao City, Shandong Province, China, including species composition, number of individuals, origin, distribution, and age structure, to highlight the values of inheriting history and culture, improving urban environment, protecting regional biodiversity, promoting tourism economy and so on. The analyses was made through field surveys and quantitative analyses of statistical data and relevant literature, The main issues in their conservation are investigated and priority conservation measures are proposed. Results showed that there are 290 ancient and famous trees, comprising 42 species, 34 genera, and 26 families. These included four types of ancient and famous trees with different origins, namely religious trees planted by Buddhists, naturally preserved wild trees, trees with agricultural backgrounds for providing food or used as offerings, and exotic trees introduced from other places. There are relatively more local species and comparatively more elder trees. Ancient and famous trees are distributed in large numbers in Mountain Lao Scenic Area and many of them fall into temperate genera. Currently, ancient and famous tree conservation in Laoshan District is challenging because of issues such as habitat deterioration, severe effects of natural hazards, pests and diseases, weakening physiological function, and inadequate management. Based on all these analyses, countermeasures are proposed, which include regularly inspecting ancient and famous trees, restoring their habitats, reinforcing pest and disease controls, promoting studies on conservation technologies, improving management practices, increasing grants, and reforming the ownership system of ancient and famous trees.

In this article the author explored sport history pedagogy by combining the Canadian Benchmarking Project with the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy (RBT) for teaching ancient culture to undergraduate students of sport history. The article was introduced by presenting some common understanding of what constitutes the subject, sport history and explaining what pedagogical tools teachers can employ to counter the antagonism that students generally display towards the subject. It was argued that these tools are best utilised by identifying three domains of learning and teaching (cognitive, affective and physcomotor) in sport history. The researcher chose the Stone Age period as a topic of research and class presentation. Next, a narrative was created about this period, placing it within world context. Then the narrative was converted into pedagogical assessment experiences by using the RBT for use inside and outside the classroom but within the boundaries of the formal university sport history curriculum. Finally, the assessment experiences were summarised after a third year sport history class completed them.

Abstract The female academic is a person who promotes science or culture. An academic female surgeon is professional of prestige, a promoter of medicine, teaching and research. In Ancient Egypt, Merit Ptah is the fi rst female doctor who is mentioned by name in the history of medicine. In the American continent, the Mayan midwives developed the ability to predict the date of partum with some certainty. In the Middle Ages, Trótula, of the Salerno School is noted as a gynecologistobstetrician and author of medical books, while Allesandra Gillani performed dissections on cadavers along with the anatomist Mondino de Luzzi. In the 19th century, there emerged, at world level, a generation of women after the European Age of Enlightenment, who with courage, bravery and tenacity opened the doors to Universities for other women. Among these, are highlighted Elizabeth Blackwell and Mary Edwards Walker in the United States. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first women appeared in the registers of the American Medical Association and in the American College of Surgeons. In Mexico, Dr. Matilde P. Montoya Lafragua overcame the opposition to women who wanted to study medicine. With the support of the President Porfi rio Díaz, she managed to graduate in medicine, surgery and obstetrics in 1887. As occurred in other countries, the total integration of women into medicine was completed on the founding of the Mexican Female Doctors Association in 1926, and with the admission of the fi rst female doctor into the National Academy of Medicine in 1957.

Resumen La mujer académica es aquella que promueve la ciencia o la cultura. Una cirujana académica es la profesional de prestigio, promotora de la clínica, la docencia y la investigación. En el Antiguo Egipto, Merit Ptah es la primera mujer médico que es citada por su nombre en la historia de la medicina. En el continente americano, las parteras mayas desarrollan la capacidad de predecir con certeza la fecha probable del parto. En la Edad Media, Trótula, de la Escuela de Salerno, destaca como ginecoobstetra y autora de libros médicos, mientras que Allesandra Gillani realiza disecciones en cadáver, al lado del anatomista Mondino de Luzzi. En el siglo XIX surge en todo el mundo una generación de mujeres posteriores a la Ilustración europea que, con valor, talento y tenacidad, abren las puertas de las universidades a otras mujeres. Entre estas mujeres sobresalen Elizabeth Blackwell y Mary Edwards Walker en Estados Unidos. A principios del siglo XX aparecen registros de las primeras mujeres en la American Medical Association y en el Colegio Americano de Cirujanos. En México, corresponde a la Dra. Matilde P. Montoya Lafragua vencer la oposición a que las mujeres estudien Medicina. Con el apoyo del presidente Porfi rio Díaz, consigue graduarse como médica, cirujana y obstetra en 1887. Igual que ocurrió en otros países, en México la integración total de la mujer en la medicina se completa al fundarse la Asociación de Médicas Mexicanas en 1926 y con el ingreso de la primera mujer médica en la Academia Nacional de Medicina, en 1957.

The first anatomical lexicon was established in old Egypt, Alexandria by the priests who ritually offered all the parts of the human corpses to their gods. About 500 years b. C. studies of comparative anatomy began due to the physician Alcmeon of Croton, author of the text seriously starting the history of scientific pathology according to Laín Entralgo. It was only during the III century b. C. that dissections of human corpses began at the famous Alexandrian School of Medicine in Ptolemaic Egypt. During the Roman era and in high Middle Ages, physicians carried out anatomical studies in humans in order to dismiss or confirm poisoning suspicions or to extrapolate their flindings in animals (monkeys, pigs, etc) to humans. However, in low Middle Ages (XIV century), direct studies in human corpses were performed once again. These studies reached their pinnacle in the XVI century allowing the discovery of the lesser blood circulation and later of the greater blood circulation. The XVII century saw the coming of microscopic anatomy and the XVIII century witnessed the zenith of pathological anatomy. These studies developed during the following century into clinical-anatomical comparison. Today the help of technological studies is mandatory.

El léxico anatómico más antiguo se estableció por los sacerdotes egipcios, quienes ofrecían de forma ritual a los dioses todas las partes del cuerpo del difunto. Hacia el año 500 a. c. se iniciaron estudios de anatomía comparada por el médico Alcmeón de Crotona, autor del texto que, según Laín Entralgo, inicia formalmente la historia universal de la patología científica. Solamente en el siglo III a. C. en el Egipto tolemaico comenzaron a efectuarse disecciones en cadáveres humanos. En la época romana y en la Alta Edad Media, los médicos realizaban estudios anatómicos en humanos para descartar o confirmar sospechas de envenenamiento y en animales (monos, cerdos, etcétera) para extrapolar sus hallazgos al hombre. Pero en la Baja Edad Media (siglo XIV), se volvió al estudio directo del cuerpo humano. Dicho estudio alcanzó un gran auge en el siglo XVI, lo que llevó al descubrimiento de la circulación menor y, más tarde, de la circulación mayor de la sangre. En el siglo XVII llegó el estudio de la anatomía microscópica y, en el siglo XVIII, la sistematización de la anatomía patológica. En el siglo siguiente se impuso el cotejo anatomoclínico y, actualmente, se impone el auxilio de procedimientos tecnológicos de gabinete.

La unión hace la fuerza, es cierto, pero antes es necesario rescatar la idea de lo común en sentido antropológico y ecológico, como hizo la antigua filosofía griega. Hay importantes relaciones y significados -habitualmente postergados- en el hecho de que todos seamos humanos y a la vez habitantes del planeta, también en la era de la globalización y del cambio climático. Pero la crisis de civilización que afrontamos está destruyendo esas condiciones comunes del ser humano en política, economía y relaciones globales. Por eso es urgente crear una forma alternativa de organización para vivir juntos y el primer paso es recordarlo.

“United we stand”, that is true, but it is necessary, previously, to rescue the idea of the common in the anthropological and ecological senses, just as ancient greek philosophy did. There are important relations and meanings -usually neglected- in the fact that we all are humans and inhabitants of this planet at the same time, in the age of globalization and climate change. But the crisis of civilization we are facing is destroying those common conditions of human beings in politics, economy and global relationships. Thus, it is urgent to create an alternative way of organization for living together and the first step is to remember it.

Il est vrai que l’union fait la force, mais il faut auparavant reprendre l’idée du commun au sens anthropologique et écologique, tel que l’a fait l’ancienne philosophie grecque. Il y a d’importants liens et significations, d’habitude reportés, dans le fait que nous soyons tous humains et à la fois habitants de la planète, dans l’âge de la mondialisation et du changement climatique. La crise civilisatoire que nous affrontons est en train de détruire ces conditions communes de l’être humain dans la politique, l’économie et les relations globales, ce qui exige d’urgence une organisation alternative pour vivre ensemble, le premier pas étant de se souvenir.

To design an appropriate methodology to study the approximate 2500years of Western philosophy, inclusive of many individual philosophers, constitutes a quite daunting challenge. Nevertheless, it is of vital importance that it be attempted since one's methodology predetermines one 's final results. While reflecting a scholar's own presuppositions on the one hand, the chosen method should simultaneously not force history into a pre-conceived scheme on the other. Furthermore, in attempting to do justice to its wide field of investigation, the proposed methodology should at the very least be both fully historical and clearly philosophical in nature. Philosophic historiographers of the past, however, tended to emphasise either the historical development or the philosophical problems or ideas. More stumbling-blocks on the way are for example: the influence of broader and narrower views on the field of investigation of philosophy on its historiography; criteria for determining either the importance or unimportance of a specific philosopher or school of philosophy; the choice between either the present-day relevance of its history or faithfulness to the ancient birth of Western philosophy in Greece. In order to highlight their strengths and weaknesses, the second part of this essay provides a brief survey of various methodologies. Some textbooks on the history of philosophy, or anthologies containing selections from the writings of past philosophers, simply make a selection of those philosophers whom the writer/editor himself regards as of importance. A second group prefers to follow a chronological method. The third employs a kind of psychological-ethnic approach, taking the "soul" of a nation as vantage point, dividing history into, for example, German, French, English and other national philosophies. Many others approach the history of philosophy from the perspective of different epochs and accordingly divide it into pre-modern (ancient), medieval, modern and postmodern eras. Others again, prefer a more detailed division into successive centuries, characterised for example as "the age of belief", "the age of reason" etcetera. Then there are those who further subdivide the centuries into smaller, different philosophical currents. Apart from these synchronic methods, several diachronic methods were also developed. Examples discussed in the overview are various "history of ideas" methods, as well as a worldviewish approach. In the light of the preceding information, the third main section of the article attempts to formulate essential criteria for a more comprehensive and appropriate historiographical method of research: (1) a historian of philosophy should openly and clearly state the relationship between his own philosophical viewpoint and his method of describing the history of philosophy; (2) it should be consistently philosophical in nature; (3) consistently historical and (4) problem-directed; (5) consistent in the terminology applied and (6) experimentally tested. The whole exploration is concluded with a brief review as well as the preview of a follow-on article in which the origin, basic contours and critical appraisal of the consistent problem-historical method of philosophical historiography of prof. D.H.Th. Vollenhoven (1892-1975) and his followers will be discussed.

Hierdie artikel behels 'n ondersoek na 'n gepaste metode om die geskiedenis van die filosofie weer te gee. So 'n wysgerige historiografie behels 'n besondere uitdaging aangesien dit die 2500-jarige Westerse denke, honderde individuele filosowe se stelsels en die wye veld van filosofie as sodanig moet dek. Die eerste, inleidende afdeling vestig die aandag op 'n aantal moeilike struikelblokke ofprobleme op die pad van die wysgerige historiograaf. Die tweede afdeling van die artikel gee in voëlvlug 'n oorsig oor verskeie vroeëre en gangbare metodes. Daaronder val die volgende: pogings om individuele filosofieë as vertrekpunt te gebruik, 'n kronologiese aanpak, 'n psigologies-etnografiese metode, indelings in breë tydvakke, vanuit verskillende denkstrominge asook probleem- en lewensbeskoulikgerigte benaderings. Verder word die aandag gevestig op die rol wat elke historiograaf se eie voorveronderstellings in sy verkose metode speel asook die dikwels gepaardgaande terminologiese verwarring tussen verskillende metodologieë. Die derde hoofdeel formuleer, in die lig van al die leemtes wat in die eerste twee geïdentifiseer is, die belangrikste kriteria waaraan 'n wysgerige historiografie behoort te beantwoord. Hierdie maatstawwe sluit die volgende in: konsekwentheid tussen die geskiedskrywer se eie vertrekpunt en sy metode(s); dat dit sowel konsekwent histories as filosofies moet wees; konsekwente probleemgerigtheid, met die gebruikmaking van eenduidige terminologie en dat dit ook prakties beproef behoort te wees. Ten slotte word die aandag daarop gevestig dat so 'n konsekwente historiografiese metode vir die filosofie wel bestaan en afsonderlike bespreking in 'n opvolgartikel verdien.

The work of the French thinker, Michel Foucault, is an inexhaustible source of insight regarding the way in which one enters into a relationship with history - something that is not self-evident, but requires careful consideration of the contingent factors which have contributed to the present state of affairs. Such a consideration also opens the way for a critique of current social practices, which may otherwise seem self-justifying and necessary. With this in mind, the present article addresses the theme of "enlightenment" in the work of Foucault, with a view to articulating what such "enlightenment" would amount to in contemporary society. One soon learns from Foucault's own writings on enlightenment that there is a fundamental difference between "enlightenment" in the Kantian sense of the 18th-century "present" - that is, ofhumanity coming of age in what became known as the historical Enlightenment, on the one hand, and "enlightenment" in the sense of a philosophy of the (contemporary) present, which would do justice to both the (Kantian) universal as well as what is contingent and particular, on the other. More specifically, Foucault contends that Kant's emphasis on the universal should be amplified by Baudelaire's characterization of the modern in terms of a tension between being and becoming (or the universal and the particular), in this way finding the "eternal" (or enduringly valuable) in the fleeting, historically contingent moment. For Baudelaire, this would amount to a kind of self-invention. For Foucault, such self-invention would enable one to turn Kant's critique into one that is pertinent for the present time, namely to ask what there is, in what we have been led to accept as being necessary and universal, which we no longer are, or want to be, thus practising a kind of transgressive enlightenment. The question, what specific contingent practices ofthe present would have to be transgressed, and how this could be done, may be answered by first turning to Foucault's genealogies, Discipline and punish and The history of sexuality (Vol. 1), which afford one a scrutiny of contemporary practices that reduce human beings to disciplined, docile bodies, on the one hand, and exercise control through "bio-power" over individuals and populations, on the other. In the former book, Foucault distinguishes three chief disciplinary mechanisms, all of which contribute to shaping individuals into economically productive, but politically impotent, entities. These are "hierarchical observation", "normalizing judgment" and the "examination" (in which the first two are combined). Together, they are said to comprise the mainstay of a "panoptical" society which takes its name from Bentham's 19th-century idea of an optimal-surveillance prison, or "Panopticon ", which Foucault demonstrates to have become pervasive in contemporary society through the micro-operation of the mechanisms referred to. In short: today's societies are pervasively carceral, where the body is no longer the prison of the soul or mind, but vice versa. In the first volume of The history of sexuality Foucault argues that the bio-power characteristically wielded by modern states over populations is founded on the twin principles of what he calls the "anatomo-politics of the human body" and the "bio-politics of the population", where the latter denotes the control of the "social body" (or corpus) in its entirety, on the one hand, and of the "species-body", according to which the many biological functions of the human body are scrutinized, on the other. These include the circumstances which determine the differences regarding reproduction, births and deaths, health levels, longevity and life-expectancy. The "anatomo-politics of the body", in its turn, concerns disciplinary power over the body-as-machine, which entails the optimalization of somatic potential for purposes of utility, correlative to the docility which guarantees economic efficacy. Clearly, bio-power and discipline converge here. Turning to the manner in which these contemporary practices may be transgressed in the name of an enlightenment for the present, one of the clearest indications by Foucault is encountered in the The care of the self, the third volume in his history of sexuality, where, focussing on the ethical practices on the part ofindividuals during the Hellenistic era ofancient Rome, he articulates the requirements for what was known as epimeleia heautou, or the care of the self. Far from resembling contemporary narcissism as embodied in Reiki or reflexology for the idle rich, the "care of the self"among the Romans entailed, as Foucault shows through his interpretive analysis of relevant texts, a decidedly difficult set ofpractices aimed at gaining mastery over one's soul, whatever the circumstances which may threaten to overwhelm one. The ultimate goal appears to have been ethical autonomy, although it should be added that such autonomy - which nevertheless contrasts sharply with the heteronomy of contemporary subjects of discipline and bio-power - is never "complete", but at best "relative" autonomy, considering every individual's insertedness in social and linguistic structures that antedate and surpass him- or herself. In this work, it is argued here, Foucault has provided one with a worthy example of what enlightenment would entail in terms of autonomy. But importantly this would require that, as the Hellenistic Romans did, one would have to "problematize " existing disciplinary mechanismsfirst. The paper also draws from Hardt and Negri's reflections on what they call the revolutionary "minor Kant", and from the work of Jacques Ranciére as an instance of taking Foucault's work on enlightenment further, in the direction of a resuscitation of what "democracy" implies, specifically in terms of a radical notion of "equality" and "dissensus", both ofwhich periodically disrupt the hierarchically structured domain ofwhat Ranciére calls (punning on the ancient Greek concept of "polis") the "police". In the final analysis the paper is an attempt to foreground the radical potential of Foucault's work for an enlightened practice of autonomy.

Die werk van Michel Foucault is 'n feitlik onuitputbare bron van insig omtrent die wyse waarop 'n mens met die geskiedenis in verhouding staan. Hy stel jou onder andere in staat om in te sien dat dit wat allerweë as noodsaaklik beskou word, eintlik maar die uitkoms is van kontingente (met ander woorde, histories-besondere, nie-noodwendige; die teenoorgestelde van "noodwendige") ontwikkelinge - 'n insig wat verreikende implikasies het vir 'n kritiek van huidige sosiale praktyke. Daarby leer 'n mens by hom wat die verskil is tussen "verligting" in die Kantiaanse sin, en "verligting" in die sin van 'n filosofie van die huidige, wat reg laat geskied, nie alleen aan die (Kantiaanse) universele nie, maar ook aan die kontingente en partikuliere (of besondere). Teen hierdie agtergrond word gevra wat die kontingente praktyke is wat vandag onkrities as "noodsaaklik" beskou word, en wat volgens Foucault se begrip van "verligting" geproblematiseer moet word. Beide sy genealogie van panoptiese dissiplinêre strategieë en van bio-mag word bespreek voordat die relevansie van sy ondersoek na antieke, outonomie-bevorderende praktyke van "die sorg vir die self' vir die moontlikheid van hedendaagse verligting aan die orde kom. By wyse van afsluiting word die belangrikheid van Jacques Ranciére se werk oor demokrasie vir die tema van verligting kortliks bespreek.

The mythological tale about the origin of the universe has played an exceptionally significant role in ancient cultures, to the point of being considered a literary genre in its own right. However, the continuous changes in epistemological paradigms have gradually pushed it aside, and it won't be until the contemporary age that the cosmological tale recovers its poetical strength, becoming an integral element in new genres, such as the fantastic and science fiction. The aim of this paper is to sketch a short history of the avatars of the cosmological genre through the ages.

La narración mitológica sobre los orígenes del mundo ha ocupado en las culturas antiguas un lugar de excepción, hasta el punto de poder ser considerada un género literario por derecho propio. Sin embargo, los sucesivos cambios de paradigmas epistemológicos irán arrinconándolo progresivamente. Habrá que esperar hasta época contemporánea para que el relato cosmogónico recobre su fuerza poética y se convierta en elemento integrante del elenco de géneros como el fantástico o la ciencia ficción. El presente trabajo se propone trazar una breve historia de los avatares del género cosmogónico.