Abstract To know the potential of Asclepias curassavica L. in the management of pests, from January 1 to December 28, 2012, a study was established in a plantation of “Persian” lemon Citrus latifolia in Emiliano Zapata, Villamar, Michoacán, Mexico. One section (treatment) included the A. curassavica plant and the other remained without that species (control). Weekly samples documented species and number of predators, phytophages, parasitoids, and parasitism levels in aphids. Toxoptera aurantii, Aphis spiraecola, Diaphorina citri and Phyllocnistis citrella were the main pests. Its largest populations occurred in the second half of the year and coincided with the main periods of budding of the crop. The main natural enemies observed in A. curassavica were the families Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chamaemyiidae, Chrysopidae and the parasitoid Lysiphlebus testaceipes. The Coccinellids predominated during the first semester of the year, while the other groups were frequent throughout the year. The results show a 46.3% reduction in citrus aphid populations where Asclepias were established; however, D. citri populations increased 77%. Probably the greatest biocontrol of aphids favored the availability of empty niches (vegetative shoots) and consequently the populations of the psyllid. The wide diversity of natural enemies registered in A. curassavica suggests a high potential of the plant to be used in the regulation and stability of the entomowildlife of agroecosystems, rather than in the control of specific pests.

Resumen Para conocer el potencial de Asclepias curassavica L. en el manejo de plagas, del 01 de enero al 28 de diciembre de 2012, se estableció un estudio en una plantación de limón “persa” Citrus latifolia en Emiliano Zapata, Villamar, Michoacán, México. Una sección (tratamiento) incluyó la planta A. curassavica y la otra se mantuvo sin esa especie (testigo). Muestreos semanales documentaron especies y número de depredadores, fitófagos, parasitoides, y niveles de parasitismo en áfidos. Toxoptera aurantii, Aphis spiraecola, Diaphorina citri y Phyllocnistis citrella, fueron las principales plagas. Sus mayores poblaciones ocurrieron en el segundo semestre del año y coincidieron con los principales periodos de brotación del cultivo. Los principales enemigos naturales observados en A. curassavica fueron las familias Coccinellidae, Syrphidae, Chamaemyiidae, Chrysopidae y el parasitoide Lysiphlebus testaceipes. Los Coccinellidos predominaron durante el primer semestre del año, mientras que los otros grupos fueron frecuentes durante todo el año. Los resultados muestran una reducción de 46.3% en las poblaciones de áfidos de los cítricos donde se establecieron Asclepias; sin embargo, las poblaciones de D. citri se incrementaron 77%. Probablemente el mayor biocontrol de áfidos favoreció la disponibilidad de nichos vacíos (brotes vegetativos) y consecuentemente las poblaciones del psílido. La amplia diversidad de enemigos naturales registrados en A. curassavica sugiere un alto potencial de la planta para utilizarse en la regulación y estabilidad de la entomofauna de los agroecosistemas, más que en el control de plagas específicas.

The main goal of this research was to identify the socioeconomic and parasitological factors that limit cocoa production in Chiapas, Mexico. One hundred and nine cacao-growers were visited and interviewed in the two main cocoa-producing regions. According to results only 14.7 % farmers grow white-almond cacao. The average production unit is 2.6 hectares. Cacao growers are 59 years-old on average and 56 % of them did not finish elementary school. Only 19.3 % of the production units are under woman responsibility. Average yield is 118 kg ha-1 and 60.5 % growers sell cacao to intermediaries. Pests that affect the crop and their occurrence include Moniliophthora roreri(100 %), Phytophthora capsici(67%), Fusariumsp. (10.1 %), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides(3.7 %), Ceratocystis cacaofunesta(0.9 %), Atta sp. (33.9 %), Toxoptera aurantii (11 %), squirrels (7.3 %), Xyleborus ferrugineus, Xylosandrus morigerus, Hypothenemus birmanus, Corthylus minutissimus, Taurodermus sharpi, Hypothenemus interstitialis(5.5 %), Vanduzea segmentata(5.5 %), woodpecker (4.6 %), Selenothrips rubrocintus (3.7 %), Clastoptera laenata (3.7 %) and mole (3.7 %). Moniliophthora is the main factor that affects cacao survival and biodiversity in Chiapas. The disease destroys production, makes control uneconomical and causes growers to abandon their plantations.

El objetivo de la investigación fue identificar los factores socioeconómicos y parasitológicos que limitan la producción del cacao en Chiapas, México. Se llevaron a cabo encuestas y visitas a 109 productores de las dos principales regiones productoras. Entre los resultados más importantes se registró que solamente el 14.7 % de los productores cultiva cacao de almendra blanca. La unidad de producción promedio es de 2.6 ha. Los productores tienen una edad promedio de 59 años y el 56 % de ellos no completó su instrucción primaria. Sólo el 19.3 % de las unidades productivas está bajo la responsabilidad de mujeres. El rendimiento promedio es de 118 kg ha-1 y el 60.5 % de los productores vende el cacao a intermediarios. Las plagas que afectan al cultivo y su frecuencia son: Moniliophthora roreri(100 %), Phytophthora capsici(67 %), Fusariumsp. (10.1 %), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides(3.7 %), Ceratocystis cacaofunesta(0.9 %), Atta sp. (33.9 %), Toxoptera aurantii (11 %), ardillas (7.3 %), Xyleborus ferrugineus, Xylosandrus morigerus, Hypothenemus birmanus, Corthylus minutissimus, Taurodermus sharpi, Hypothenemus interstitialis(5.5 %), Vanduzea segmentata(5.5 %), pájaro carpintero (4.6 %), Selenothrips rubrocintus (3.7 %), Clastoptera laenata (3.7 %) y tuzas (3.7 %). Moniliophthora es el principal factor que afecta la supervivencia del cacao y su biodiversidad en Chiapas. Esta enfermedad destruye la producción, hace su control no rentable e induce a los agricultores a abandonar sus huertas.

Os aspectos fisiológicos e bioquímicos influenciados pelo silício e que condicionam reações de resistência a pragas no cacaueiro ainda são pouco conhecidos. O objetivo deste experimento foi avaliar os efeitos da aplicação de silício sobre a fotossíntese, sobre o teor foliar de fenóis solúveis totais e a sua influência na preferência de Toxoptera aurantii em genótipos de cacau. O experimento foi conduzido em casa de vegetação, no delineamento de blocos casualizados, com quatro repetições, em arranjo fatorial 3 x 3, constituído por três genótipos (TSH 1188, CCN 51 e Catongo), duas doses de silicato de potássio (3 e 6 mL L-1), aplicadas por via foliar e um controle pulverizado somente com água. Foram realizadas avaliações das trocas gasosas, da fluorescência da clorofila a e do teor de compostos fenólicos foliar, além de um teste de preferência com chance de livre escolha com T. aurantii. Os genótipos TSH 1188 e CCN 51 apresentam maior eficiência fotoquímica e fotossintética, comparados com o Catongo. Independentemente do genótipo, a aplicação de silicato de potássio não alterou o índice de desempenho das plantas (PI ABS e PI TOTAL); no entanto, a dose 3 mL L-1 aumentou a fotossíntese líquida e o teor de fenóis solúveis totais. A dose 6 mL L-1 reduziu a preferência de T. aurantii pelas folhas do genótipo TSH 1188. A aplicação de silicato de potássio é promissora no aumento da resistência do cacaueiro a T. aurantii.

The physiological and biochemical aspects influenced by silicon and that influence reactions of resistance to pests in cocoa are still poorly understood. The aim of this research was to evaluate the effects of silicon application on photosynthesis, the leaf content of total soluble phenols and preference of Toxoptera aurantii in cocoa genotypes. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse in a randomized block design with four replications in a factorial 3 x 3, consisting of three genotypes (TSH 1188, CCN 51 and Catongo), two doses of potassium silicate (3 and 6 mL L-1) applied to the leaves and a control sprayed with water. Evaluations were conducted for gas exchange, chlorophyll a fluorescence and phenolic content in leaf level, besides a preference test with a chance of free choice with T. aurantii. The genotypes TSH 1188 and CCN 51 had higher photochemical efficiency and photosynthesis compared with Catongo. Regardless of genotype, the application of potassium silicate did not affect the performance index of the plants (and PI ABS PI TOTAL), however, the dose 3 mL L-1 increased net photosynthesis and total soluble phenol content. The dose 6 mL L-1 reduced the preference of T. aurantii to the leaves of genotype TSH 1188. The application of potassium silicate is promising to increase the resistance of cacao to T. aurantii.

Os afídeos são importantes pragas em citros como vetores de vírus fitopatogênicos. O objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a diversidade de espécies de afídeos alados e a ocorrência estacional dos afídeos em um pomar de citros localizado em Taiúva, SP. Para as coletas de afídeos foram utilizadas armadilhas do tipo bandejas amarelas com água e placas adesivas amarelas. Foram realizadas quatro amostragens semanais em cada estação climática, durante o ano agrícola de 2004/2005. Foram capturados exemplares de afídeos das espécies: Aphis gossypii Glover, Aphis spiraecola Patch, Toxoptera citricida Kirkaldy e Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscombe), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel, Uroleucon ambrosie (Thomas) e Acyrthosiphon bidenticola Smith. As espécies A. spiraecola e T. citricida foram as mais abundantes, sendo caracterizadas como espécies comuns em todo o período avaliado. Coletaram-se mais afídeos alados no outono/2004, em relação às demais estações e maior quantidade e diversidade de espécies de afídeos foi obtida em bandejas com água.

The aphids are important pests of the citrus orchards, as they act as vectors of the phytopathogenic virus. The research aimed to estimate the diversity of the species of winged aphids and the occurrence in each season in a citrus orchard of citrus in Taiúva, State of São Paulo. The yellow trap type Moericke and yellow trap stick were used for the catches, on four weeks samplings, in each season, from April/2004 until April/2005. The species colleted were Aphis gossypii Glover, Aphis spiraecola Patch, Toxoptera citricida Kirkaldy e Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscombe), Rhopalosiphum maidis (Fitch), Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel, Uroleucon ambrosie (Thomas) e Acyrthosiphon bidenticola Smith. The species A. spiraecola and T. citricida were the most abundant, and classificated as common species. A peak of winged applied capture was during the Autumn/2004, and the yellow trap with water captured more aphids than the yellow trap stick.

The conidial production of the fungus Lecanicillium lecanii cultivated in different substrates (nutrition media + supports) and its pathogenicity were determined. The evaluated media were: sorghum, rice grain, broken rice grain ("granillo"), rice polish ("pulido") and as supports sugar cane leftover "bagazo", rice husk and corn cob "olote". The combination of media and supports provided twelve treatments plus a control constituted by rice alone. The production of conidia displayed statistical differences (p< 0.05) among treatments; those with larger conidia production were sugar cane leftover (bagazo) + rice (839.7 ± 1.2 x 10(6) g-1) and sorghum + corn cob (825.8 ± 1.7 x 10(6) g-1). Although polished of rice was the less efficient medium for production, all combinations where it was included resulted superior to rice alone. Rice showed the smallest production of conidia (265.4 ± 1 x 10(6) g-1). Also, the media and support where it was produced affected the pathogenicity of L. lecanii on Toxoptera aurantii and Aphis gossypii. The aeration favored by the support marked the difference between treatments and the control. Results indicated that the culture medium is important for the massive production of L. lecanii; besides, they indicate that the pathogenicity of the fungus was also affected by the culture medium.

La investigación se realizó en 2001 en Cárdenas, Tabasco, México. Se estudió la relación entre producción conidial del hongo Lecanicillium lecanii en diferentes sustratos (medios nutritivos y soporte) y su patogenicidad. Como medios se evaluaron: sorgo, grano de arroz, grano de arroz quebrado ("granillo") polvo de arroz ("pulido"), y como soportes: bagazo de caña, cascarilla de arroz y "olote" de maíz. La combinación de medios y soportes proporcionó doce tratamientos más un testigo constituido solo por arroz. La producción conidial de los tratamientos mostró diferencias significativas (p< 0.05). Los sustratos con mayor producción de conidios fueron bagazo de caña y arroz (839.7 ± 1.2 x 106 g-1) y sorgo y olote (825.8 ± 1.7 x 10(6) g-1). Aunque el pulido fue el medio menos eficiente, la producción conidial en todas sus combinaciones fue superior a la del arroz solo, que mostró la menor producción conidial (265.4 ±1 x 10(6) g-1). La patogenicidad de L. lecanii sobre Toxoptera aurantii y Aphis gossypii también se vio afectada por el medio y el soporte en que se produjo. La aireación proporcionada por el soporte marcó la diferencia entre los tratamientos y el testigo. Los resultados señalan que el medio de cultivo es importante en la producción masiva de L. lecanii e indican que la patogenicidad del hongo también fue afectada por el mismo.

Com o objetivo de identificar e estudar a ocorrência das pragas da mangueira e de predadores no Vale do São Francisco, realizaram-se prospecções em oito plantios comerciais, da cultivar Tommy Atkins, de fevereiro de 2000 a janeiro de 2002. Em cada plantio, foram feitas coletas de moscas-das-frutas utilizando-se armadilhas McPhail e Jackson; a ocorrência de outras pragas e predadores foi estimada em amostras de ramos, folhas, inflorescências e frutos. Os artrópodes-praga, em ordem decrescente de ocorrência, foram: Aceria mangiferae (Sayed) (Acari: Eriophyidae) - 87,0%; Pseudaonidia tribitiformis (Green) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) - 70.1%; Ceratitis capitata Wied. (Diptera: Tephritidae) - 66,1%; Erosomyia mangiferae Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) - 64,6%; Pleuroprucha asthenaria Walker (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) - 42,9%; Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Tarsonemidae) - 39,3%; Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae) - 33,0%; Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) - 26,4%; Oligonychus sp. (Acari: Tetranychidae) - 16, 6%; Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) - 13,1%; mirídeo não identificado - 9,1% e pulgões [Aphis craccivora Koch; Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe), A. gossypii Glover) (Hemiptera: Aphididae)] - 7,2%. Os predadores foram: Euseius concordis (Chant) e E. citrifolius (Denmark & Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) - 32,7%; Cheletogenes ornatus (Canestrini & Fanzago) (Acari: Cheyletidae) - 32,3%; Rubroscirus sp. (Acari: Cunaxidae) - 17,7%; aranhas não identificadas - 16,6% e (Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) e Ceraeochrysa cubana (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) - 3,7%.

In order to identify and evaluate the occurrence of arthropods-pest and predators on mangoes at "Vale do São Francisco", northestern Brazil, studies were carried out in eight commercial plantations of the cv. Tommy Atkins, from February 2000 to January 2002. In each area, fruit flies were collected using McPhail and Jackson traps; other pests and predators were evaluated on samples of branches, panicles and fruits. The arthropods-pest occurrence in decreasing order were: Aceria mangiferae (Sayed) (Acari: Eriophyidae) - 87.0%; Pseudaonidia tribitiformis (Green) (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) - 70.1%; Ceratitis capitata Wied. (Diptera: Tephritidae) - 66.1%; Erosomyia mangiferae Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) - 64.6%; Pleuroprucha asthenaria Walker (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) - 42.9%; Polyphagotarsonemus latus (Banks) (Acari: Tarsonemidae) - 39.3%; Anastrepha spp. (Diptera: Tephritidae) - 33.0%; Selenothrips rubrocinctus (Giard) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) - 26.4%; Oligonychus sp. (Acari: Tetranychidae) - 16.6%; Frankliniella schultzei (Trybom) (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) - 13.1%; unidentified mirid - 9.1%, and aphids [Aphis craccivora Koch; Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe), A. gossypii Glover (Hemiptera: Aphididae)] - 7.2%. The predators were: Euseius concordis (Chant) and E. citrifolius (Denmark & Muma) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) - 32.7%; Cheletogenes ornatus (Canestrini & Fanzago) (Acari: Cheyletidae) - 32.3%; Rubroscirus sp. (Acari: Cunaxidae) - 17.7%; unidentified arachnids - 16.6%, and Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) and Ceraeochrysa cubana (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) - 3.7%.

Las hormigas se encuentran en los cafetales solas o asociadas con otros insectos, afectando directa o indirectamente las plantas. Con el fin de aclarar algunas de estas asociaciones, en cultivos de café menores de tres años se colectaron e identificaron las hormigas y los insectos chupadores asociados, se describieron las relaciones que se presentaban entre éstos y se elaboró una guía de campo para la identificación de los formícidos. Las evaluaciones y toma de muestras se efectuaron en siete subestaciones experimentales de Cenicafé. Los datos obtenidos a partir de los registros tomados en campo fueron sometidos a estadística descriptiva. Un total de 114 asociaciones diferentes se reconocieron; se encontraron 30 especies de hormigas de las subfamilias Formicinae, Myrmicinae, Dolichoderinae y Ponerinae, asociadas con 12 especies de chupadores de las familias Coccidae, Pseudococcidae, Aphididae, Ortheziidae, Aleyrodidae, Aethalionidae y Membracidae. Los insectos chupadores del cafeto más frecuentes fueron: Coccus uiridis, Saíssetia coffea, Planococcus cítrí, Toxoptera aurantii y Orthezia sp. Se presentaron tres tipos de relaciones distribuidas así: Mutualismo (95,11%), comensalismo (4,57%) y depredación (0,32%). En las subestaciones de Supía (Caldas) y Líbano (Tolima) se encontró el número mayor de especies, tanto de hormigas como de chupadores asociados. Las hormigas protegen indirectamente las colonias de chupadores del ataque de enemigos naturales a través de la limpieza y con coberturas. Sin embargo, no ejercen una acción directa contra los hongos, parasitoides y depredadores que realizan un control natural y que regulan la población de homópteros.

Ants are found isolated or associated with other insects, directly or indirectly affecting the coffee plants. In order to clarify some of these associations, in coffee plantations, younger than three years, ants and associated homopteran insects were collected and identified, the relationships described and a field guide for identification of the formicids elaborated. The study was carried out in seven experimental substations of Cenicafé. The data obtained from the field records were submitted to descriptive statistics. A total of 114 different associations were recognized; 30 ants species of the Formicinae, Myrmicinae, Dolichoderinae and Ponerinae subfamilies associated with 12 homopteran of the Coccidae, Pseudococcidae, Aphididae, Ortheziidae, Aethalionidae and Membracidae families were found. The sucking insects more common on the coffee plants were: Coccus viridis, Saissetia coffea, Planococcus citri, Toxoptera aurantii and Orthezia sp.. Three types of relationships were identified: mutualism (95,11%), comensalism (4,57%) and depredation (0,32%). The highest number of ants and associated sucking species were registered at the Supia (Caldas) and Libano (Tolima). The ants indirectly protect the homopteran colonies against natural enemy attack through cleaning and covers, however, they do not exercise a direct action against fungi, parasites and predators that act as natural control agents and regúlate the homopteran population.

Observaram-se em pomares de mangueiras (Mangifera indica L.), no semi-árido nordestino, altas infestações de afídeos causando danos às folhas novas e brotações da planta. Diversas amostras foram coletadas, tendo sido identificadas três espécies: Aphis craccivora, Aphis gossypii e Toxoptera aurantii. As duas primeiras espécies estão sendo relatadas pela primeira vez como pragas, em mangueiras, no Brasil. Espécimens de referência encontram-se depositados no Laboratório de Entomologia da Embrapa Semi-Árido, localizada em Petrolina-PE.

A high infestation of aphids was observed at private orchards of mango (Mangifera indica L.) in the Brazilian northeast, with significant damage to young leaves, buds and inflorescences of the plants. Three aphid species were identified from collected samples: Aphis craccivora, Aphis gossypii and Toxoptera aurantii. In Brazil, this is the first record of A. craccivora and A. gossypii as pest on this fruit crop. Voucher specimens are deposited at the Entomology Laboratory of the Embrapa Semi-árido Research Center.

Aphid samplings were accomplished at three "Valencia" orange orchards in the municipalities of Hidalgo, Padilla and Victoria, Tamaulipas, from September 1995 to April 1996 during 12 collecting dates. Fifteen trees per orchard were sampled and infested shoots were collected from three strata of the tree height. The aphid species found were Aphis gossypii (Glover), Aphis spiraecola (Patch), Aphis fabae (Scopoli) and Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe) in a contagious distribution; medium stratum was the most preferred. The absence of Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy) during the period of study was confirmed. Natural enemies found were four Coccinellidae species (Hippodamia sp., Cycloneda sp., Brachyacantha sp. and Stethorus sp.), two Syrphidae species (Ocyptamies sp. and Pseudodorus clavatus Fabricius), one Chrysopidae (Chrysoperla rufilabris Burmeister) and one Chamaemyiidae (Leucopis sp.) as predators; Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) (Braconidae) as primary parasitoid, and Alloxysta megouzae (Ashm.) (Cynipidae) as a secondary parasitoid.

Se realizaron muestreos de pulgones en tres huertas de naranja "Valencia" de los municipios de Hidalgo, Padilla y Victoria, Tamaulipas, desde septiembre de 1995 hasta abril de 1996 durante 12 fechas de colecta. Se muestrearon 15 árboles por huerta y se colectaron brotes infestados en cada uno de los tres estratos de altura de los árboles. Las especies de pulgones presentes fueron: Aphis gossypii (Glover), Aphis spiraecola (Patch), Aphis fabae (Scopoli) y Toxoptera aurantii (Boyer de Fonscolombe), presentando una distribución por contagio y siendo preferido el estrato medio del árbol. Se confirma la ausencia de Toxoptera citricida (Kirkaldy) durante el periodo de estudio. Los enemigos naturales fueron cuatro especies de Coccinellidae (Hippodamia sp., Cycloneda sp., Brachyacantha sp., y Stethorus sp.), dos de Syrphidae (Ocyptamies sp. y Pseudodorus clavatus Fabricius), una de Chrysopidae (Chrysoperla rufilabris Burmeister) y una de Chamaemyiidae (Leucopis sp.), Lysiphlebus testaceipes (Cresson) (Braconidae) como parasitoide primario, y Alloxysta megouzae (Ashm.) (Cynipidae) como parasitoide secundario.