Resumen La importancia de los líderes escolares y de sus competencias para afrontar los retos cotidianos requiere reflexión permanente y formación adecuada para quienes desenvuelven la misión educativa. Una amplia literatura confirma que el liderazgo escolar que ejercen los directores y directivos de la escuela es uno de los pilares más importantes para mejorar los aprendizajes. Este tiempo de pandemia ha requerido la identificación de prácticas claves en la gestión escolar que contribuyan a poner al centro a las/los estudiantes y sus necesidades, e incidir en sus procesos de aprendizaje. Este trabajo de investigación presenta los resultados de un estudio realizado en 2020 a 300 directivos/as de las escuelas salesianas de Argentina, Chile, Paraguay y Uruguay, que conforman la región del Cono Sur. El propósito se enmarca en las estrategias que la escuela salesiana de América está desarrollando para impulsar la calidad de sus centros educativos presentes en el continente. El objetivo fue estimar el grado de apropiación de las competencias directivas salesianas de quienes trabajan directamente en la gestión escolar. Se utilizó un estudio de tipo cuantitativo, con la técnica de la encuesta, la cual fue aplicada a través de un cuestionario online. Los resultados describen las características del liderazgo salesiano, dando cuenta de procesos formativos que pueden ser potenciados en los próximos años y que adquieren mayor relevancia en el contexto de la pandemia de la Covid-19.

Abstract The importance of school leaders and their skills to face daily challenges requires ongoing reflection and adequate training for those who carry out the educational mission. Extant literature confirms that school leadership exercised by school principals and directors is one of the most important cornerstones for improving student learning. These pandemic times have also required identifying key practices in school management that both contribute to putting students and their needs at the center and affect their learning processes. This paper reports the results of a study carried out in 2020 with 300 Salesian school directors from Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay, countries making up the Southern Cone Region. The study addresses the strategies that the Salesian school of the Americas is developing to promote the quality of its educational centers in the continent. The aim was to assess the degree of appropriation of the managerial competencies by those who work directly in the management of the schools. Based on a quantitative approach, this study relied on an online survey. Results describe the characteristics of Salesian leadership and showcase formative processes that can be strengthened in the coming years and that become more relevant in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic.

Abstract The purpose was to elucidate how the interpretation of the past takes action in the notion of citizenship of high school students from Querétaro in relation to the Mexican Republic. A selective quantitative methodology (data from the Americas Barometer Project and Resident Project data) was implemented to interpret them qualitatively. It is exposed a) problematization of the construct of citizenship in relation to historical consciousness and culture; b) comparison of data from the Resident Project for Querétaro (Latapí and Rivas, 2021, 2022), applied to young people aged 16 to 18 in 2019, with national data on 18-year-olds from the Barometer of the Americas, 2021; c) results provide agreement on the concept of depoliticized and static citizenship associated with legalistic rules, not built on participation but on the observance of moral norms. This is associated with the prevailing historical culture and historical consciousness.

Resumen El propósito consistió en dilucidar cómo interviene la interpretación del pasado en las nociones de ciudadanía de jóvenes queretanos en relación con la República Mexicana. Se instrumentó una metodología cuantitativa selectiva (datos del Proyecto Barómetro de las Américas y datos del Proyecto Residente) para interpretarlos cualitativamente. Se expone a) problematización del constructo de ciudadanía en relación con la conciencia y la cultura históricas; b) comparación de datos del Proyecto Residente para Querétaro (Latapí y Rivas, 2021, 2022), aplicado a jóvenes de 16 a 18 años en 2019, con datos nacionales de jóvenes de 18 años del Barómetro de las Américas, 2021; c) resultados que aportan coincidencia en el concepto de ciudadanía despolitizado, estático asociado al derecho legalista, que no se construye en la participación sino en la observancia de normas morales. Ello se asocia a la cultura y conciencia históricas preponderantes.

Resumen Este artículo propone una breve revisión histórica y un estado actual de las investigaciones en Sudamérica en torno a los objetos líticos tallados. Particularmente, se evalúa la influencia del pensamiento de la escuela francesa a través de las investigaciones tipológicas y tecnológicas en este sub-continente. En un primer momento, se revisan los aportes de la percepción tipológica del material lítico, y de la racionalidad que le prosiguió con la construcción de un discurso -la denominada “escuela francesa de tecnología prehistórica”. Seguidamente, se evalúan las trayectorias de ambas escuelas a la luz de las misiones arqueológicas francesas presentes en Sudamérica. Ambas escuelas han influenciado la forma de construir conocimiento tanto en Francia, como en el ámbito sudamericano. Se hace énfasis, finalmente, sobre los efectos epistemológicos de los enfoques franceses en las Américas, sopesando su rol efectivo en la percepción, descripción y diagnóstico de los conjuntos líticos arqueológicos: ¿simples herramientas de lectura o disrupciones paradigmáticas?

Abstract This article proposes a brief historical review and a current state of research in South America on knapped lithic objects. Particularly, the influence of French school thinking through typological and technological research in this sub-continent is assessed. Firstly, the contributions of the typological perception of lithic material and the rationality that followed it with the construction of a discourse - the so-called “French school of prehistoric technology” - are reviewed. Subsequently, the trajectories of both schools are evaluated in light of the French archaeological missions present in South America. Both schools have influenced the way knowledge is built in France as well as in the South American context. Finally, emphasis is placed on the epistemological effects of French approaches in the Americas, weighing their effective role in the perception, description, and diagnosis of archaeological lithic assemblages: simple reading tools or paradigmatic disruptions?

RIASSUNTO Il contributo si propone di gettare nuova luce sull’opera della “Commissione dei libri” interna alla “Dante Alighieri” nel primo Novecento. Si farà leva su un variegato novero di fonti, tra cui le relazioni del primo presidente Arturo Galanti. In particolare, l’azione condotta dalla “Dante” per la diffusione di libri gratuiti per gli emigranti italiani rientra nella sfera d’interesse portata con il Presidente Villari all’emigrazione e alle scuole italiane all’estero, coniugando l’esigenza di diffondere la lingua e la cultura italiana con quella di contrastare la “snazionalizzazione” e il rischio dell’oblio di quanti si separavano dalla patria. Ma quali erano i libri spediti gratuitamente fuori dal Regno? Quali i destinatari, tra cui scuole, educatori, patronati? Quali i luoghi di arrivo, in Europa, nelle Americhe e fino all’Australia?Sono questi alcuni interrogativi cui il lavoro intende restituire risposte. In sintesi, la circolazione transnazionale del libro italiano, quale strumento principale indirizzato alla protezione ed istruzione degli emigranti, sarà ricostruita negli anelli essenziali delle strategie educative e culturali poste in campo dalla “Dante”: la cooperazione sul suolo italiano con la Direzione Generale delle Scuole all’Estero, con il Commissariato Generale dell’Emigrazione, con case editrici e altre associazioni; l’organizzazione di bibliotechine a bordo dei vapori; la diffusione di migliaia di libri nei diversi paesi di emigrazione “tra gli italiani che abbandonano la patria e per conservare in essi l’impronta nazionale troppo facile a perdersi” (GALANTI, 1918, p. 1). sullopera sull opera Commissione Dante Alighieri Novecento fonti Galanti particolare lazione l azione dinteresse d interesse allemigrazione all allestero, allestero estero, estero all’estero lesigenza esigenza snazionalizzazione “snazionalizzazione delloblio dell oblio Regno destinatari educatori patronati arrivo Europa allAustraliaSono Australia Sono risposte sintesi allEstero, allEstero Estero, Estero all’Estero dellEmigrazione, dellEmigrazione Emigrazione, Emigrazione dell’Emigrazione associazioni lorganizzazione organizzazione vapori limpronta impronta perdersi GALANTI, GALANTI (GALANTI 1918 p 1. 1 . 1) 191 19

ABSTRACT The contribution aims to shed new light on the internal “Book Commission”’s work of the “Dante Alighieri” in the early twentieth century. It will draw on many sources, including the reports of the first president Arturo Galanti. In particular, the action carried out by the “Dante” for the dissemination of free books for Italian emigrants falls within the sphere of interest brought with President Villari to emigration and Italian schools abroad, to flight against the “nationalization” and the risk of oblivion of those who were separated from their homeland. But what were the books sent free of charge outside the Kingdom? Which recipients, including schools, educators, patronages? What were the places of arrival, in Europe, the Americas and as far as Australia?These are some of the questions to which the work aims to return answers. In summary, the transnational circulation of the Italian book, addressed to the protection and education of emigrants, will be reconstructed in the educational and cultural strategies of the “Dante”: the cooperation on Italian soil with the General Directorate of Schools Abroad, with the General Commissariat of Emigration, with publishing houses and other associations; the organization of libraries on board steamers; the dissemination of thousands of books in the different countries of emigration “among Italians leaving the homeland and to preserve in them the national imprint too easy to get lost” (GALANTI, 1918, p. 1). Book Commissions Commission s Dante Alighieri century sources Galanti particular abroad nationalization “nationalization Kingdom recipients educators patronages arrival Europe AustraliaThese Australia These answers summary book Abroad Emigration associations steamers among lost GALANTI, GALANTI (GALANTI 1918 p 1. 1 . 1) 191 19

RESUMO O artigo traz uma nova luz ao trabalho da “Comissão de livros” interna à Sociedade “Dante Alighieri” no início do século XX. Serão alavancadas várias fontes, entre as quais as relações do primeiro presidente Arturo Galanti. Em particular, a ação conduzida pela “Dante” para difusão de livros gratuitos para os emigrantes italianos é parte de esfera de interesse trazida desde o início pelo presidente Villari a emigração e às escolas no exterior, combinando a necessidade de difundir a língua e a cultura italiana com a de contrariar a “desnacionalização” e o risco de oblívio daqueles separados da pátria. Quais eram os livros enviados gratuitamente para fora do Reino? Quais os destinatários, entre os quais, escolas, educadores, patriotas? Quais lugares de chegada, na Europa, nas Américas e até a Australia? São essas algumas questões a serem respondidas. Em síntese, a circulação transacional dos livros italianos, como principal instrumento destinado à proteção e integração dos emigrantes, será reconstruída nos elos essenciais das estratégias educacionais e culturais implantadas pela “Dante”: a cooperação no solo italiano com a direção geral das escolas no exterior, com o Comissário geral da emigração, com editoras e outras associações; a organização de bibliotecas a bordo de navios a vapor, a distribuição de milhares de livros nos diversos países de emigração “entre os italianos que deixam sua pátria e para se manterem neles a marca nacional muito fácil a se perder” (GALANTI, 1918, p. 1). Comissão Dante Alighieri XX fontes Galanti particular exterior desnacionalização “desnacionalização Reino destinatários educadores patriotas chegada Europa Australia respondidas síntese associações vapor perder GALANTI, GALANTI (GALANTI 1918 p 1. 1 . 1) 191 19

Die doel van hierdie artikel is om 'n oorsig en ontleding te bied van die internasionale diskoers oor, en die ervaring rakende die onderwystaalmedium, en dan dié oorsig en ontleding te gebruik ter beligting van die Suid-Afrikaanse vraagstuk ten opsigte van onderwystaalmedium. Gedurende die eerste twee millennia van die bestaan van "die" skool as onderrig-leerinstansie, was die oorheersende taal van die politieke magsgebied waarin 'n betrokke skool geleë was vanselfsprekend ook die onderrig- en leertaal van die skool. Die kerkhervorming en veral die ontstaan van nasionale state in Wes-Europa in die negentiende eeu het 'n wending hierin meegebring deurdat hierdie gebeure die beginsel van die moedertaal as voertaal / onderrig-medium in die onderwys bevorder het. In die Globale Suide, ná die staatkundige mondigwording van voormalige kolonies en die gepaardgaande bemagtiging van die betrokke moeder- en nasionale tale, is die inheemse tale egter selde as onderrig- en leertale erken en ontwikkel. Engels het boonop, as internasionale lingua franca, die afgelope halfeeu regoor die aardbol as onderrig- en leertaal in die onderwys vastrapplek begin kry. In weerwil van hierdie verwikkelinge bestaan daar 'n massa bewyse en argumente ten gunste van moedertaal-mediumonderwys. Die eerste deel van die artikel gee 'n oorsig van hierdie bewysmateriaal en argumente. In die tweede deel word hierdie materiaal benut om die onderwystaalmediumvraagstuk in die Suid-Afrikaanse onderwys te belig. Die historiese verloop van sake in Suid-Afrika het uitgeloop op die oorheersing van Engels as voertaal in die onderwys. Hierdie toedrag van sake het gelei tot stremming in die ontwikkeling en bemagtiging van die verskillende inheemse tale as onderwysvoertale. Afrikaans, indien 'n mens dit sou beskou as een van die inheemse tale ('n taal wat op Afrikabodem ontstaan en ontwikkel het), het benewens die globale en historiese-nasionale kragte ten gunste van Engels wat in die eerste deel van die artikel beskryf is, ook te doen met histories-politieke druk (as die "onderdrukkerstaal"). In die eerste deel van die artikel het dit geblyk dat daar sterk argumente, gesteun deur empiriese bewyse, bestaan ten gunste van die bemagtiging van moedertale as voertale in onderwys, en dus téén die huidige oorheersende posisie van Engels as onderwystaalmedium. Nie net geld dieselfde argumente vir die situasie in Suid-Afrika nie maar daar is ook 'n aantal faktore wat die wenslikheid van moedertaalmediumonderwys hier te lande des te meer noodsaaklik maak. Enkele aanbevelings word in hierdie verband aangebied.

The aim of this article is twofold. It is firstly to map the international discourse and experience regarding the issue of language of learning and teaching in education. Secondly, the article focuses on the South African question regarding the issue of language of learning and teaching in educational institutions, by employing the international framework constructed in the first section for purposes of illumination, interpretation, and assessment. The language medium in education remains a contentious issue in education, also in the South African context. The comparative method that was used for doing the mapping, namely, to examine and draw potentially valuable insights and perspectives from comparable international situations, is widely used for illuminating societal issues, also in education. Schools were instituted for the first time around 3 000 BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt. During the first millennia in the history of these institutions, the dominant language of the political jurisdiction or entity in which the school was located was employed as the language of learning and teaching in schools. This was due to the political objectives of education and schooling as well as the social origins of the learners who attended the schools. Schools originated autochthonously in only a few places; most school systems in the world today can trace their roots back to the early mediaeval European prototype which was subsequently exported to the extra-European world by means of missionary activities and imperial (colonial) endeavours. It is important to keep this development in mind for an understanding of the subsequent course that the language of learning and teaching in schools followed. A departure from the mediaeval practice to use Latin as the language of learning and teaching in schools coincided with the Reformation in Western Europe in the sixteenth century, in particular the formation of nation-states in that part of the world since the beginning of the nineteenth century. The leaders of the Reformation promoted the use of the vernacular for reading and understanding the Bible, and for this reason agitated for the home language to become the language of teaching and learning in the schools. This ideal was never fully realised, however; even in Western Europe the dominant language of each nation was used as the language of teaching and learning. The notion of developing the vernacular as language of learning and teaching did not form part of the imperialist project of instituting schools in the colonies from the fifteenth century in the Americas and Asia, and from the nineteenth century in Sub-Saharan Africa. Instead, the official language of the colonial power in question was used as the language of learning and teaching in colonial schools. The empowerment of the vernacular to become the official language of the country, a hallmark of the formation of nation-states and of national education systems in the Global North, received at best scant attention or lip service when the nations of the Global South, especially in Africa (notably in Sub-Saharan Africa) and South Asia gained independence during the 1960s. The situation has since been exacerbated by the rise of English as international lingua franca in the past half century. The impact of this development can be detected in the education systems of the world, including those of the Global North: English has become a de facto universal second or third language in teaching and learning at most levels. English is also increasingly supplanting respectively French and Portuguese as languages of teaching and learning in institutions of education in francophone and lusophone Africa. This, as mentioned, is a direct result of the vernacular not having been developed and empowered to become the language of teaching and learning. The hegemonic position of English is also reinforced by widespread support for this language as medium of teaching and learning among parents. Parents are convinced that mastery of English will be advantageous for their children in the higher education context and later in the international commercial world. A plethora of scholarly investigations seem to indicate that the vernacular should be favoured as the language of learning and teaching in institutions of education. Their findings revolve around respect for human rights, including the right to use the home, mother or first language as medium of teaching and learning; the role of language of teaching and learning in ensuring that the vernacular maintains and even improves its status and currency in society; educational considerations, including the role that the mother language plays in cognitive development and the learning of the first language, the learning of a second language, and subsequently, the learning of English; also the issue of equality and equity in education, and the role and impact of the language of learning and teaching in the maintenance and production of human and social capital. In the second part of the article, the South African situation regarding the issue of language of teaching and learning is described, analysed, interpreted and assessed against the internationalframework outlined in the first part. The analysis and discussion presented reveal that the international considerations are valid for the issue of language of learning and teaching in South Africa as well. They also show that several contextual-ecological features of the South African pedagogical landscape cause the promotion of the vernacular as medium of teaching and learning to be of even greater urgency. These features include the poor output (achievement) levels of, and the concomitant high levels of attrition in the South African education system, the persistent unacceptably high unemployment rate, the high levels of social inequality, and the national priority of making education accessible to all. Recommendations are made as to how the development of the various vernaculars could be developed to become efficient media of teaching and learning. Two of the strategies that could be considered are to promote the use of the vernacular in teacher education, and to use some of the international aid that is being poured into the African continent for the purpose of developing the various vernaculars to grow into effective education media.

Abstract: The growing phenomenon of migratory processes in Chile has been accompanied by an increase in family migration of the population under 18 years of age, which increased their situation of vulnerability due to age and their migratory status. This complexity increases with respect to the precarious situation of families experienced in the migratory processes. This article presents the results of a qualitative study, based on group interviews with adolescents, from countries in the Andean region and the Caribbean. The participants were aged between 13 and 15 years and attended a municipal school in the Municipality of Recoleta in Santiago. Among the main findings, the importance of involving adolescents in decision-making within migration processes is highlighted, as well as their being taken into account in family reunification practices, as these will be a determining factor in the reconstruction processes of their socio-family environments.

Resumen: El creciente fenómeno de los procesos migratorios en Chile ha venido acompañado del aumento de la migración familiar de población menor de 18 años, lo que profundiza su situación de vulnerabilidad, propia de la edad, con su condición migratoria. Esta complejidad se acrecienta frente a la fragilización familiar experimentada en los procesos migratorios. Este artículo muestra los resultados de un estudio cualitativo, basado en entrevistas grupales realizadas a adolescentes, provenientes de países de la región andina y del Caribe, cuyas edades fluctúan entre los 13 y 15 años, y que asisten a escuelas municipales de la Municipalidad de Recoleta en Santiago. Entre los principales hallazgos del estudio se subraya la importancia de involucrar a los adolescentes en la toma de decisiones dentro de los procesos migratorios, así como su consideración en las prácticas de reunificación familiar, ya que estas se convierten en procesos de reconstrucción de sus entornos sociofamiliares.

RESUMO O objetivo desse trabalho é analisar como a Educação para as Relações Étnico-Raciais (ERER) é abordada nos itens de língua espanhola do Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio (ENEM) das provas aplicadas para Pessoas Privadas de Liberdade (PPL). A análise se centra em cinco itens, referentes às aplicações feitas entre 2010 e 2019, que abordam as relações étnico-raciais no mundo hispânico, através do texto, do enunciado e das alternativas das questões. Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa, descritivointerpretativista e de técnica documental (MOITA LOPES, 1994). Essa discussão se insere no campo teórico da Linguística Aplicada (LA) voltada para pesquisas responsivas, que atendam às demandas sociais e pensem os sujeitos e a linguagem como heterogêneos e racializados, a partir de uma visão suleada (SILVA JÚNIOR; MATOS, 2019). Como fundamentação teórica, além dos pressupostos da LA, tomamos como base os estudos decoloniais que problematizam a colonialidade do poder, fundamentada principalmente na ideia de raça a partir da colonização das Américas (LANDER, 2005; QUIJANO, 2005; CASTRO-GÓMEZ; GROSFOGUEL, 2007; MIGNOLO, 2007; WALSH, 2008; VERONELLI, 2015). Os estudos étnicoraciais também fundamentam esta investigação, pois buscamos promover uma educação igualitária e livre de preconceitos, com vistas a refletir essa concepção na sociedade. Os resultados apontam que a ERER é contemplada parcialmente nos itens de língua espanhola aplicados para PPL, demonstrando que é um tema ainda urgente de ser debatido no meio educacional. ÉtnicoRaciais Étnico Raciais (ERER ENEM (ENEM PPL. PPL . (PPL) 201 2019 étnico raciais hispânico texto questões Tratase Trata qualitativa MOITA LOPES 1994. 1994 1994) LA (LA responsivas racializados SILVA JÚNIOR MATOS 2019. 2019) teórica poder LANDER, LANDER (LANDER 2005 QUIJANO CASTROGÓMEZ CASTRO GÓMEZ CASTRO-GÓMEZ GROSFOGUEL 2007 MIGNOLO WALSH 2008 VERONELLI 2015. 2015 2015) investigação preconceitos sociedade educacional (PPL 20 199 200 2 19 1

ABSTRACT The goal of this study is to analyse how the Education for Ethnic-Racial Relations has been addressed in the Spanish Language items from the National High School Exam (ENEM) specifically the tests applied for people deprived of their freedom. The analysis is mainly focused on five items, regarding tests applications between 2010-2019, addressing ethnic-racial relations in the hispanic world, taking as resources the text, the statement and the alternatives of the questions. This is a descriptiveinterpretative qualitative study, based on documental analysis (MOITA LOPES, 1994). It is an Applied Linguistics (AL) theory field of discussion focused on responsive research aiming to fulfill social demands, thinking on the subjects and language as heterogeneous and racialized from a southern point of view (SILVA JÚNIOR; MATOS, 2019). As theoretical foundation, besides AL’s assumptions, we based ourselves in the decolonial studies that problematize the coloniality of power, mainly grounded in the racial idea from the colonization of the Americas (LANDER, 2005; QUIJANO, 2005; CASTRO-GÓMEZ; GROSFOGUEL, 2007; MIGNOLO, 2007; WALSH, 2008; VERONELLI, 2015). Ethnic-racial studies also ground this work, since we endeavour the promotion of an egalitarian and prejudice free education, aiming to reflect this conception in society itself. The results show that ERER is partially contemplated in the Spanish Language items for people deprived of their freedom, indicating it still is a demanding matter to be discussed in the educational field. EthnicRacial Ethnic Racial ENEM (ENEM freedom 20102019, 20102019 2010 2019, 2019 2010-2019 ethnicracial ethnic world text questions MOITA LOPES 1994. 1994 . 1994) AL (AL demands SILVA JÚNIOR MATOS 2019. 2019) foundation ALs s assumptions power LANDER, LANDER (LANDER 2005 QUIJANO CASTROGÓMEZ CASTRO GÓMEZ CASTRO-GÓMEZ GROSFOGUEL 2007 MIGNOLO WALSH 2008 VERONELLI 2015. 2015 2015) Ethnicracial work education itself 2010201 201 2010-201 199 200 201020 20 2010-20 19 20102 2 2010-2 1 2010-

Abstract Héctor Abad-Gómez, Colombian physician, university professor, journalist and human rights defender, was murdered in Medellín in 1987. He was a pioneer public health activist engaged in various fields. While being student his restless and dissatisfied mind, led him to fight for a better and safer water and food. He specialized in the University of Minnesota (USA), at his return to the country he led the establishment of the Rural Medical Service. Forced to exile for several years he was WHO consultant to several countries in the Americas and Asia. In 1956 he founded the Preventive Medicine and Public Health Department of the University of Antioquia. He carried out the first recorded mass community vaccination against polio in the world. He initiated a community health agents program known as “Rural health promoters” that later would be implemented nationally. In 1962 he first proposed the application of epidemiological methods to study violence; he was visiting professor at the University of California; he coined the term “polyiatry” for a specialty dedicated to the health populations; he was director of the Colombian National School of Public Health that currently bears his name. Héctor Abad-Gómez ventured into political life, in accordance with Virchow dictum that “politics is medicine on a large scale”. The lives of both have interesting similarities except for the tragic and premature death of the former that still receives rejection today in social, political and academic levels, both in Colombia and abroad.

Resumen Héctor Abad Gómez, médico salubrista colombiano, profesor universitario, periodista y defensor de los derechos humanos, fue asesinado en Medellín en 1987. Fue pionero de la salud pública en sus diversos campos, inquieto e inconforme, comprometido desde su vida estudiantil en la lucha por el agua potable y por los alimentos inocuos. Se especializó en la Universidad de Minnesota (EE.UU.) y a su regreso al país lideró el establecimiento del servicio médico rural. En el exilio por varios años, fue consultor de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para varios países de América y Asia. En 1956, de nuevo en Colombia, fundó el Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública de la Universidad de Antioquia, realizó la primera vacunación masiva registrada contra la poliomielitis en el mundo e inició el programa de agentes comunitarios de salud, conocido como «promotoras rurales de salud», que se implementó en todo el país. En 1962 propuso por primera vez en el mundo estudiar la violencia aplicando el método epidemiológico, y la «poliatría» como especialidad dedicada a la salud de las poblaciones. Fue director de la Escuela Nacional de Salud Pública que actualmente lleva su nombre. Fue profesor visitante en la Universidad de California. Para él, como decía Virchow, «la política es medicina a gran escala», y por ello incursionó en la vida política. Las vidas de ambos tienen interesantes similitudes, excepto la forma trágica de la prematura muerte de Héctor Abad Gómez, que todavía hoy recibe el rechazo en todos los estamentos sociales, políticos y académicos, tanto en Colombia como en el extranjero.

Abstract Héctor Abad-Gómez, Colombian physician, university professor, journalist and human rights defender, was murdered in Medellín in 1987. He was a pioneer public health activist engaged in various fields. While being student his restless and dissatisfied mind, led him to fight for a better and safer water and food. He specialized in the University of Minnesota (USA), at his return to the country he led the establishment of the Rural Medical Service. Forced to exile for several years he was WHO consultant to several countries in the Americas and Asia. In 1956 he founded the Preventive Medicine and Public Health Department of the University of Antioquia. He carried out the first recorded mass community vaccination against polio in the world. He initiated a community health agents program known as “Rural health promoters” that later would be implemented nationally. In 1962 he first proposed the application of epidemiological methods to study violence; he was visiting professor at the University of California; he coined the term “polyiatry” for a specialty dedicated to the health populations; he was director of the Colombian National School of Public Health that currently bears his name. Héctor Abad-Gómez ventured into political life, in accordance with Virchow dictum that “politics is medicine on a large scale”. The lives of both have interesting similarities except for the tragic and premature death of the former that still receives rejection today in social, political and academic levels, both in Colombia and abroad.

Resumen Héctor Abad Gómez, médico salubrista colombiano, profesor universitario, periodista y defensor de los derechos humanos, fue asesinado en Medellín en 1987. Fue pionero de la salud pública en sus diversos campos, inquieto e inconforme, comprometido desde su vida estudiantil en la lucha por el agua potable y por los alimentos inocuos. Se especializó en la Universidad de Minnesota (EE.UU.) y a su regreso al país lideró el establecimiento del servicio médico rural. En el exilio por varios años, fue consultor de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para varios países de América y Asia. En 1956, de nuevo en Colombia, fundó el Departamento de Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública de la Universidad de Antioquia, realizó la primera vacunación masiva registrada contra la poliomielitis en el mundo e inició el programa de agentes comunitarios de salud, conocido como «promotoras rurales de salud», que se implementó en todo el país. En 1962 propuso por primera vez en el mundo estudiar la violencia aplicando el método epidemiológico, y la «poliatría» como especialidad dedicada a la salud de las poblaciones. Fue director de la Escuela Nacional de Salud Pública que actualmente lleva su nombre. Fue profesor visitante en la Universidad de California. Para él, como decía Virchow, «la política es medicina a gran escala», y por ello incursionó en la vida política. Las vidas de ambos tienen interesantes similitudes, excepto la forma trágica de la prematura muerte de Héctor Abad Gómez, que todavía hoy recibe el rechazo en todos los estamentos sociales, políticos y académicos, tanto en Colombia como en el extranjero.

ABSTRACT Introduction: The WHO indicates that in 2016 approximately 1.1 million adolescents between the ages of 10 and 19 died in the world, mostly due to preventable causes. Objective: The present study analyzed the problems, risk situations and traumatic experiences experienced by teens in elementary school and high school during the last year. Methodology: The design was non-experimental, quantitative, descriptive, retrospective. 661 adolescents from 56 schools in Alto Paraná participated through a probabilistic sampling stratified by three-stage conglomerate. With the prior authorization of the parents, the self-administered questionnaire Plan of Action for Development and Health of Adolescents and Young People in the Americas of the Pan American Health Organization adapted for the purposes of the research was used. Results: The results reflected problematic situations at home such as arguments with their mother / father (44.6%), bad behavior and disobedience (35.1%). At an academic level, low grades in school (43.1%). In a transversal way, character-temperament problems (25.4%) and alcohol consumption (21.0%). Regarding the emotional experiences, 33.1% felt sad or anger all the time; 17.4% got involved in fights. Conclusion: Risk situations such as suicide attempt (16.6%) were evidenced; and traumatic experiences such as sexual abuse (6.5%), beatings and mistreatment (16.0%). Only 10.9% attended the consultation for emotional problems.

RESUMEN Introducción: La OMS señala que en el 2016 murieron en el mundo aproximadamente 1,1 millones de adolescentes de entre 10 y 19 años, en su mayoría, por causas prevenibles. Objetivo: El presente estudio buscó analizar las problemáticas, situaciones de riesgo y vivencias traumáticas que experimentaron los adolescentes estudiantes de escolar básica y bachillerato durante el último año. Metodología: El diseño fue no experimental, cuantitativo descriptivo de corte retrospectivo. Participaron 661 adolescentes de 56 colegios de Alto Paraná a través de un muestreo probabilístico estratificado por conglomerado trietápico. Con previa autorización de los padres, se utilizó el cuestionario auto-administrado Plan de Acción de Desarrollo y Salud de Adolescentes y Jóvenes en las Américas de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud adaptado a los fines de la investigación. Resultados: Los resultados reflejaron situaciones problema en el hogar como discusiones con su madre/padre (44,6 %), mal comportamiento y desobediencia (35,1 %). A nivel académico, notas bajas en colegio (43,1 %). De forma transversal, problemas de carácter-temperamento (25,4 %) y consumo de alcohol (21,0 %). En cuanto a las vivencias emocionales, 33,1 % se sintió triste o nervioso(a) todo el tiempo; 17,4 % se involucró en peleas o riñas. Conclusión: Se evidenciaron situaciones de riesgo como intento de suicido (16,6 %); y vivencias traumáticas como abuso sexual (6,5 %) golpes y maltrato (16,0 %). Solo un 10,9 % acudió a consulta por problemas emocionales.

Abstract Parallel to the emancipatory process of the Spanish colonies and creation of constitutional republics in the Americas in 19th century, ideas about a confederation of independent states were forming. The forerunner, Francisco de Miranda, was inspiring generations with his global vision of the new nations and the creation of a great state from the Mississippi River to Cape Horn. In Chile, Juan Egaña raised the need for an American Union through an amphictyonic congress, with national governments defining its functions and powers. Decades later, the same ideas continued to be supported by Andrés Bello in Chile. The cornerstone is undoubtedly Simón Bolívar, who organized the Panama Congress of 1824, and thanks to his unmatched leadership, achieved a multilateral treaty with a supranational body, a unique feat in the continent at that time. Despite being considered a failure regarding the lack of subsequent ratifications, the Panama Congress did mark the beginning of intermittent international conferences that allowed for the fostering of original international legal principles in the region. The ideas of confederation are framed by the jurist, Alejandro Álvarez, in the “Egaña-Bolívar” Doctrine, which is a founding part of the so-called American School of International Law.

Resumen Junto con el proceso emancipatorio de las colonias españolas y la creación de repúblicas constitucionales en el siglo XIX en América, encontramos ideas relativas a la formación de una confederación de Estados independientes. Es Francisco de Miranda, quien inspira a generaciones con una visión global de América y una gran nación desde el río Mississippi hasta el Cabo de Hornos. En Chile, Juan Egaña plantea un congreso anfictiónico en la región, delimitando las funciones y competencias que los gobiernos deben otorgar, ideas que décadas más tarde son defendidas por Andrés Bello en El Araucano. La piedra angular es el Libertador Simón Bolívar, quien propone concretamente el Congreso de Panamá en 1824, un tratado con un órgano supranacional único en su especie hasta ese entonces en el continente. Panamá a pesar de haber sido un fracaso desde el punto de vista de sus ratificaciones, marca el inicio del multilateralismo, con conferencias que permiten la germinación de originales principios jurídicos. Las ideas de confederación son enmarcadas por el jurista Alejandro Álvarez bajo la doctrina Egaña-Bolívar, la que es parte fundante de la llamada Escuela Americana de Derecho Internacional.

Resumen: Partiendo del concepto de la zona del ser y del no-ser desarrollado por Franz Fanon, el objetivo de este artículo es explorar el funcionamiento de la frontera entre esas zonas, así como los mecanismos que sujetan los cuerpos a una u otra. Esto se hace por medio del análisis de tres casos: el trabajo esclavo en la industria global del chocolate, el origen imperial de las técnicas de guerra de la Escuela de las Américas y la conquista del Caribe colombiano por parte de las Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia. El análisis se alimenta de una relectura feminista de la obra de Fanon, del concepto de las nuevas formas de la guerra de Rita Segato y de la perspectiva de la necropolítica de Achile Mbembe.

Abstract: Building upon the concept of the being and nonbeing zone, developed by Partiendo Frantz Fanon, this paper aims to explore the inner workings of the border between those two zones, along with the mechanisms tying bodies to each. This is done by analysing three cases: indentured labor in the global chocolate industry, the imperial origin of war techniques at the School of the Americas, and the conquest of Colombian Caribbean by Colombian United Self-defence Armies. This analysis se draws on Fanon’s work, the notion of Rita Segato’s new forms of war and Achile Mbembe’s necropolitics perspective.

Resumo: A partir do conceito da zona do ser e do não ser, desenvolvido por Franz Fanon, o objetivo deste artigo é explorar o funcionamento da fronteira entre essas zonas, bem como os mecanismos que mantêm os corpos numa ou em outra. Para isso, analisam-se três casos: trabalho escravo na indústria global do chocolate, a origem imperial das técnicas de guerra da Escola das Américas e a conquista do Caribe colombiano pelas Autodefesas Unidas da Colômbia. A análise se alimenta de uma releitura feminista da obra de Fanon, do conceito das novas formas da guerra de Rita Segato e da perspectiva da necropolítica de Achile Mbembe.

BACKGROUND Despite efforts to mitigate the impact of dengue virus (DENV) epidemics, the virus remains a public health problem in tropical and subtropical regions around the world. Most DENV cases in the Americas between January and July 2019 were reported in Brazil. São Paulo State in the southeast of Brazil has reported nearly half of all DENV infections in the country. OBJECTIVES To understand the origin and dynamics of the 2019 DENV outbreak. METHODS Here using portable nanopore sequencing we generated20 new DENV genome sequences from viremic patients with suspected dengue infection residing in two of the most-affected municipalities of São Paulo State, Araraquara and São José do Rio Preto. We conducted a comprehensive phylogenetic analysis with 1,630 global DENV strains to better understand the evolutionary history of the DENV lineages that currently circulate in the region. FINDINGS The new outbreak strains were classified as DENV2 genotype III (American/Asian genotype). Our analysis shows that the 2019 outbreak is the result of a novel DENV lineage that was recently introduced to Brazil from the Caribbean region. Dating phylogeographic analysis suggests that DENV2-III BR-4 was introduced to Brazil in or around early 2014, possibly from the Caribbean region. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our study describes the early detection of a newly introduced and rapidly-expanding DENV2 virus lineage in Brazil.

Resumo: Introdução Peru provavelmente seja o país da região das Américas com uma maior incidência e prevalência de hidatidose cística; a infância é a etapa da vida onde geralmente adquire-se a infeção, pelo qual é importante o desenvolvimento de capacidades para sua prevenção. Objetivo Determinar o nível de conhecimento sobre hidatidose humana após a aplicação de um programa preventivo em crianças do ensino elementar (5° ano) de uma instituição educativa da localidade de Huancavelica. Metodologia Estudo quase experimental com pre e post teste a grupo experimental e controle, mostra 28 crianças em cada grupo que cumpriram critérios de seleção, amostragem não probabilística. Aplicou-se um questionário para medir conhecimentos sobre hidatidose humana e medidas preventivas, o programa esteve baseado no Modelo Didático Operativo de Bustos, empregando-se a “t” de Student para amostras em pares. Resultados O nível de conhecimento sobre hidatidose humana antes da intervenção educativa foi 50% entre médio e alto (17.5 ± 3.4); despois da intervenção 100% mostrou um nível alto (26.8 ± 1.9) p=0.001. O conhecimento sobre medidas preventivas da hidatidose humana antes da intervenção foi 25% baixo, 57.1% médio e 17.9% alto (5.5 ± 2.2); após a intervenção o nível foi 10.7% médio e 89.3% alto (9.1 ± 1.4) p=0.001; o grupo controle não evidenciou mudanças. Conclusões O programa preventivo foi eficaz, já que como resultado da intervenção apreciou-se uma melhora no conhecimento da hidatidose, assim como das medidas de prevenção para evitá-la.

Abstract: Introduction Peru is probably the country in the region of the Americas with the highest prevalence of cystic hydatidosis, and because during childhood is when the infection generally is acquired, it is important to develop strategies in order to prevent it. Objective To determine the level of knowledge about human hydatidosis after the implementation of an educational preventing program on children of the 5th grade at a school at Huancavelica, Peru. Methodology This is a quasi-experimental study with control and experimental groups and pre-post tests on a sample of 56 children (28 per group) who met the selection criteria. Sampling was non probabilistic. A questionnaire was given in order to assess the corresponding levels of knowledge, including that on the preventing measures. The program was based on the Operative Educational Model of Bustos. Paired Student’s t tests were calculated. Results The level of knowledge on human hydatidosis before the educational intervention was 50% between medium or high (17.5 ± 3.4), but after the program, 100% showed a high level of knowledge (26.8 ± 1.9) p=0.001. Specific knowledge on preventive measures before the intervention was 25% low, 57.1% medium, and 17.9% high (5.5 ± 2.2), and after the program, the levels were 10.7% medium and 89.3% high (9.1 ± 1.4) p=0.001. The control group did not show changes in the scores. Conclusions The educational program improved the knowledge on hydatidosis and its preventive measures.

Resumen: Introducción Perú probablemente sea el país de la región de las Américas con una mayor incidencia y prevalencia de hidatidosis quística; la niñez es la etapa de la vida donde generalmente se adquiere la infección, por lo que es importante el desarrollo de capacidades para su prevención. Objetivo Determinar el nivel de conocimiento sobre hidatidosis humana tras la aplicación de un programa preventivo en niñas/os del quinto de primaria de una institución educativa de la localidad de Huancavelica. Metodología Estudio cuasi experimental con pre y post prueba a grupo experimental y control, muestra 28 niñas/os en cada grupo que cumplieron criterios de selección, muestreo no probabilístico. Se aplicó un cuestionario para medir conocimientos sobre hidatidosis humana y medidas preventivas, el programa estuvo basado en el Modelo Didáctico Operativo de Bustos, empleándose la “t” de Student para muestras pareadas. Resultados El nivel de conocimiento sobre hidatidosis humana antes de la intervención educativa fue 50% entre medio y alto (17.5 ± 3.4); después de la intervención 100% mostró un nivel alto (26.8 ± 1.9) p=0.001. El conocimiento sobre medidas preventivas de la hidatidosis humana antes de la intervención fue 25% bajo, 57.1% medio y 17.9% alto (5.5 ± 2.2); tras la intervención el nivel fue 10.7% medio y 89.3% alto (9.1 ± 1.4) p=0.001; el grupo control no evidenció cambios. Conclusiones El programa preventivo fue eficaz, ya que como resultado de la intervención se apreció una mejoría en el conocimiento de la hidatidosis, así como de las medidas de prevención para evitarla.

This article presents bibliographic and testimonials information about the history of the professionalization of public health, and the professional development of the sanitarians in Peru during the period between 1935 and 1968, in order to provide legitimacy to the comments that were made about the internal and external reasons of achievements and limitations of both process during, and at the end of this period. For this purpose, the article is organized into six sections: Background information of the region of the Americas and Peru; the professionalization of public health in Peru (1935-1968); Public health professional development and the foreign cooperation in Peru (1935-1968); the training programs for sanitarians in Peru (1961-1963); the School of Public Health of Peru (1964-1968); and, comments about the situation of the sanitarians in the sixties decade.

Este artículo presenta información bibliográfica y testimonial sobre la historia de la profesionalización de la salud pública y la capacitación de sanitaristas en el Perú durante el período 1935-1968, con el fin de sustentar la validez de los comentarios que se hacen sobre las razones internas y externas de los logros y limitaciones de ambos procesos durante, y al final de este período. Con este fin, el artículo se organiza en seis ítems: Antecedentes en la región de las américas y en el Perú; profesionalización de la salud pública en el Perú (1935-1968); capacitación en salud pública y la cooperación externa en el Perú (1935-1968); programas de capacitación del personal sanitario en el Perú (1961-1963); la Escuela de Salud Pública del Perú (1964-1968); y, comentarios sobre la situación del sanitarista en la década del sesenta.