RESUMO Perante um eventual crime informático ou infracção disciplinar em que tenha sido utilizado um suporte digital (como meio ou como fim) e que é objecto de investigação, são necessários diferentes procedimentos para apurar o que, como, quem e quando ocorreu o ato punível. Este artigo tem como objetivo propor o desenho de uma metodologia para o desenvolvimento de uma investigação forense digital, para isso, o método utilizado foi fazer uso de processos e métodos aceitos pela comunidade internacional, bem como o adequado gerenciamento e tratamento de provas digitais (cadeia de custódia), para que sirva como ferramenta de apoio técnico para processos administrativos e disciplinares realizados por uma entidade do estado colombiano no âmbito da Lei 1952 de 2019. Como resultado, surge uma proposta que pode ser utilizada para a aplicação do Código Disciplinar Geral em termos de obtenção de provas digitais, com a qual se conclui que os diferentes investigadores dispõem de um processo que pode conduzir a óptimos resultados, com isso a cumprir a lei.

ABSTRACT In the face of a possible computer crime or disciplinary offense in which digital elements have been used (as a means or as an end) and that is the subject of investigation, different procedures are required to know what, how, who and when the possible punishable act has occurred. The objective of this paper is the design of a methodology for the development of a forensic investigation. For this, the method used were the processes and methods accepted by the scientific and technical community for the adequate management and treatment of digital evidence (chain of custody), in order to be a technical support tool for administrative cases in Colombian government institutions within the context of Law 1952 of 2019. As a result, there is a proposal that can be used for the application of the General Disciplinary Code in terms of obtaining digital evidence, with which, it is concluded that the different researchers have at their disposal a process that can lead to optimal results, thereby comply with the law.

RESUMEN Cuando se está en frente de un posible delito informático o una falta disciplinaria en donde se ha usado un medio digital (como medio o como fin) y que es objeto de investigación, se requiere de diferentes procedimientos para lograr hallar el qué, cómo, quién y cuándo sucedió el posible hecho punible o falta disciplinaria. Este artículo tiene como objetivo proponer un diseño de una metodología para el desarrollo de una investigación forense digital, para ello, el método utilizado fue hacer uso de procesos y métodos aceptados por la comunidad internacional, así como la adecuada gestión y tratamiento de la evidencia digital (cadena de custodia), de forma que sirva como una herramienta técnica de apoyo para procesos administrativos y disciplinarios que adelante una entidad del Estado colombiano en el marco de la Ley 1952 de 2019. Como resultado, se cuenta con una propuesta que puede ser usada para la aplicación del Código General Disciplinario en cuanto a la obtención de pruebas digitales, con lo cual, se concluye que los diferentes investigadores tienen a disposición una metodología que puede llevar resultados óptimos y con ello dar cumplimiento a la ley.

Resumo Considerando a importância dos direitos da criança, os instrumentos internacionais e europeus estabelecem normas destinadas a reforçar as suas garantias. Tais regras, que melhoram a situação da pessoa jovem delinquente, pretendem assegurar procedimentos que tenham em conta o bem-estar da criança e reforçar a sua posição processual que, caso contrário, pela sua idade e desenvolvimento psicofísico, pode ser mais vulnerável do que no caso de um adulto. Essas normas se referem diretamente a um delinquente juvenil submetido a um procedimento judicial. Este trabalho visa a esclarecer questões subjacentes a uma situação processual específica, em que ocorrem processos separados em relação a um jovem infrator e contra um adulto acusado, cujo ato está relacionado com o ato do menor. Procura-se responder, no contexto das normas europeias, à questão sobre os direitos mais importantes de um jovem cujo ato infracional está em estreita relação com um ato de um adulto e que, por esse motivo, participa de um processo criminal como testemunha. Este artigo considera as normas da União Europeia que resultam dos tratados internacionais dos direitos da criança vinculantes em toda a UE, a jurisprudência específica da criança do TEDH, bem como os aspectos psicológicos relacionados com o desenvolvimento psicofísico dos jovens.

Abstract Giving special importance to the rights of the child, international and European instruments set certain standards aimed at strengthening their guarantees. The standards improving the juvenile offender’s status intend to ensure procedures that take account of the child’s welfare and strengthen their procedural position which, otherwise, because of their age and psychophysical development may be more vulnerable than in the case of an adult’s one. They refer directly to a juvenile offender in case of whom legal proceedings are conducted. This paper aims to clarify underlying issues of a specific procedural configuration, where separate proceedings are conducted regarding a juvenile offender, and separate criminal proceedings before a criminal court are run against an accused adult whose act is related to the juvenile’s act. It attempts to answer, in the context of European standards, the question on the most important rights of a juvenile whose punishable act is in a close relation to an act of an adult offender, and who, for this reason, appears in a criminal trial as a witness. This paper takes into account the European Union standards which result from international children’s rights instruments binding across the EU, the child-specific case law of ECtHR as well as the psychological aspects related to the psychophysical development of minors.

Abstract Why would a harmful act not have the same criminal relevance depending if it is committed during a sporting competition or if it takes place outside of it? On the other hand, why society reacts in similar manner when it comes to serious injuries to certain legal interests, such as the death of a person committed by another without any justification whatsoever, regardless of the setting in which the death occurs? Injuries to legal interests produced during a sporting competition should be treated, in principle, at the level of the factual elements, although it is necessary to distinguish socially appropriate cases or permitted risks, and irrelevant damages for society. Whenever in a sporting competition any damage, serious or slight, is produced as a consequence of an activity carried out within the rules governing the competition, it will be considered atypical because of the social appropriateness of the conduct. For their part, the injury to the legal right as a consequence of an infringement of the sports regulations could only be atypical according to the seriousness of such injury. With regard to the latter, the determining factor will be the magnitude of the injury itself rather than the normative disobedience.

Resumen ¿Por qué un hecho dañoso podría no tener la misma relevancia penal si se ejecuta durante una competencia deportiva o si se lleva a cabo fuera de ella? En el mismo sentido, ¿por qué ante lesiones graves de algunos bienes jurídicos, como la muerte de una persona cometida por otro sin justificación alguna, la respuesta social es similar independientemente del ámbito donde ocurra? Lo relativo a las lesiones del bien jurídico producidas en el contexto de una competición deportiva debe tratarse, en principio, a nivel del tipo penal aunque es necesario distinguir los casos adecuados socialmente o riesgos permitidos, y los daños irrelevantes socialmente. Así, siempre que en una competencia deportiva se produzca cualquier tipo de daño, grave o leve, producto de una actuación del autor realizada en el marco de las reglas que rigen la competición, aquel se considerará atípico en virtud de la referida adecuación social de la conducta. Por su parte, la lesión del bien jurídico producto de una infracción del reglamento deportivo podría ser atípica en función de la gravedad de aquella. Con relación a este último aspecto, lo determinante sería la magnitud de la propia lesión más que la desobediencia normativa.

Resumen Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo describir y analizar los estilos y estrategias de aprendizaje y su relación con el rendimiento académico en una muestra de adolescentes infractores de la ciudad de Medellín, Colombia. Se realizó un estudio no experimental, con un enfoque cuantitativo, de nivel descriptivo-correlacional y de corte transversal con 234 jóvenes de un Centro de Atención Especializada del Sistema de Responsabilidad Penal para Adolescentes. Los estilos de aprendizaje con mayor preferencia fueron el activo y el Pragmático; mientras que el estilo con menor preferencia fue el reflexivo. Respecto de las estrategias de aprendizaje, la codificación tuvo el mayor porcentaje de la muestra en el percentil medio. Las otras tres estrategias tuvieron los mayores porcentajes ubicados en el percentil bajo. La estrategia de adquisición correlacionó positivamente con los estilos reflexivo, teórico y pragmático. La estrategia de codificación correlacionó positivamente con los estilos activo, reflexivo y teórico. La estrategia de recuperación correlacionó positivamente con los estilos activo y reflexivo. Finalmente, la estrategia de apoyo al procesamiento correlacionó positivamente con todos los estilos de aprendizaje. La adquisición de información fue la variable de las estrategias de aprendizaje que más correlacionó con el rendimiento académico.

Abstract The objective of this study was to describe and analyze learning styles and strategies and their relationship to academic performance in a sample of juvenile offenders from the city of Medellin, Colombia. A cross-sectional, descriptive correlational, non-experimental study was performed with a quantitative approach on 234 young people from a Specialized Care Center of the Criminal Justice System for Adolescents. They showed a strong preference for active and pragmatic learning styles, while the style with the least preference was reflexive. With respect to learning strategies, codification obtained the highest percentage from the sample in the middle percentile. The other three strategies obtained the highest percentages in the lower percentile. The acquisition strategy was positively correlated with reflexive, theoretical and pragmatic styles. The codification strategy was positively correlated with active, reflexive and theoretical styles. The recovery strategy was positively correlated with active and reflexive styles. Finally, the processing support strategy was positively correlated with all learning styles. Information acquisition was the learning strategy variable that most correlated with academic performance.

Resumo Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo descrever e analisar estilos e estratégias de aprendizagem e sua relação com o desempenho acadêmico em uma amostra de adolescentes infratores da cidade de Medellín, Colômbia. Foi realizado um estudo não experimental, com uma abordagem quantitativa de nível descritivo-correlacional e transversal com 234 jovens de um Centro de Atenção Especializada do Sistema de Responsabilidade Criminal para Adolescentes. Os estilos de aprendizagem de mais preferência foram ativo e pragmático; enquanto o estilo com menos preferência foi o reflexivo. Em relação às estratégias de aprendizagem, a codificação teve a maior porcentagem da amostra no percentil médio. As outras três estratégias tiveram os maiores percentuais localizados no percentil baixo. A estratégia de aquisição correlacionou-se positivamente com os estilos reflexivo, teórico e pragmático. A estratégia de codificação correlacionou-se positivamente com os estilos ativo, reflexivo e teórico. A estratégia de recuperação correlacionou-se positivamente com os estilos ativo e reflexivo. Finalmente, a estratégia de apoio de processamento correlacionou-se positivamente com todos os estilos de aprendizagem. A aquisição de informações foi a variável das estratégias de aprendizagem que mais se correlacionou com o desempenho acadêmico.

Resumen La desaparición forzada de personas, si bien, no es un tema novedoso en el país, si constituye un asunto transcendental por la continua violación de derechos humanos que ha acompañado la historia colombiana. Por ello, presentar el diagnóstico de los resultados obtenidos en las investigaciones por desaparición forzada en el contexto del conflicto armado cobra vital importancia en este escenario. Para el diagnóstico se observaron diferentes estudios en la materia, estableciendo directrices mínimas en la investigación del delito de desaparición forzada, acudiendo a la fundamentación de fuentes esenciales, entre ellas, los aportes presentados por el Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica y a los lineamientos de la Corte IDH, como máxime interprete de la Convención Americana de Derechos Humanos. La propuesta desarrolla también, desde una perspectiva cualitativa, los elementos que se presuponen necesarios en la investigación del hecho punible y se estudian las necesidades penales, criminalísticas, político criminales y criminológicas esenciales, para la investigación de la desaparición forzada. El paradigma en el cual se fundamenta la investigación está en armonía con la postura sociocrítica, sin desconocer el componente, propiamente normativo, que configura la desaparición forzada en el plano doméstico e internacional.

Abstract The forced disappearance of people, though, is not a novel subject in the country, if it constitutes a transcendental issue due to the continuous violation of human rights that has accompanied Colombian history. Therefore, presenting the diagnosis of the results obtained in the investigations of forced disappearance in the context of the armed conflict is of vital importance in this scenario. For the diagnosis, different studies on the matter were observed, establishing minimum guidelines in the investigation of the crime of forced disappearance, resorting to the foundation of essential sources, among them, the contributions presented by the National Center for Historical Memory and the guidelines of the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, as the interpreter of the American Convention on Human Rights. It also develops, from a qualitative perspective, the elements that are supposed to be necessary in the investigation of the punishable act and the criminal, criminological, criminal political and criminological essential needs are studied for the investigation of the forced disappearance. The paradigm on which the research is based is based on the sociocritical stance, without ignoring the component, which is normative, which configures enforced disappearance at the domestic and international levels.

SUMMARY The present work systematizes the information obtained about the punishable act of sexual abuse in children and adolescents in the city Encarnación - Paraguay occurred between 2014 and 2016 in order to obtain a broad view on how this crime is manifested in the increase or decrease Of their values during the aforementioned period, the identification of aspects such as family characteristics, the time and manner in which the cases are revealed and the weaknesses in the protection of victims of abuse. To carry out this study has taken into account the methodological parameters of descriptive and cross-sectional, non-experimental research with a mixed approach. The rates of sexual abuse in children, according to the data provided by the institutions responsible for dealing with these cases, are high and are closely linked to economic and cultural partners.

RESUMEN El presente trabajo sistematiza la información obtenida acerca del hecho punible de abuso sexual en niños, niñas y adolescentes en la ciudad Encarnación - Paraguay ocurridos entre 2014 y 2016 a fin obtener una visión amplia acerca de cómo se manifiesta este delito en cuanto al aumento o disminución de sus valores durante el citado periodo, la identificación de aspectos como las características familiares, el tiempo y la forma en que son revelados los casos y las debilidades en cuanto a la protección de las víctimas de abuso. Para llevar a cabo este estudio se ha tenido en cuenta los parámetros metodológicos de una investigación descriptiva y transversal con enfoque cualitativo. Los índices de abuso sexual en niños, conforme a los datos proporcionados por las instituciones encargadas de atender estos casos, son elevados y se hallan muy vinculados a factores socios económicos y culturales.

Resumen El objetivo de la investigación fue analizar la variación del homicidio durante la fase de negociación entre el Gobierno Nacional y las FARC, en relación con los arts. 103, 104, 104a, 105, 108 y 135 del Código Penal colombiano. Se planteó un estudio exploratorio descriptivo con enfoque mixto, desde una perspectiva histórica. Como resultado se evidenció una relación positiva entre el homicidio y el entorno del conflicto armado como ambiente específico, denotando que cuando la confrontación armada escaló o disminuyó, en igual sentido se comportó el punible. De manera concomitante, la negociación marcó una dinámica de desescalamiento del conflicto armado, que selló la disminución del ilícito a nivel nacional, con una reducción del 8,57 %, al comparar la tasa de homicidios del año 2012 con la del 2015, pero en el medio regional aumentó en los departamentos del Atlántico, Cauca y Quindío, manteniendo una tendencia sostenida superior al promedio anual de la tasa de homicidios en Antioquia, Chocó, Guaviare, Meta, Nariño, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Risaralda y Valle del Cauca, en simetría con la presencia de estructuras criminales.

Abstract The research objective was to analyze the variation of homicide rates throughout the phase of negotiations developed between the National Government of Colombia and the FARC armed group with relation to articles 103, 104, 104a, 105, 108 and 135 of the Colombian criminal code. A descriptive exploratory study with a mixed history-based approach was envisaged. As a result, a positive relationship was evidenced between homicide and the armed conflict settings as a specific environment, pointing out that every time the confrontation either escalated or slowed down, the punishable act behaved accordingly. In a concomitant manner, a dynamics of de-escalation of the armed conflict was marked by the negotiation, thus sealing the decline of the crime at a national level with a reduction of 8.57 %, when comparing the homicide rate of year 2012 with that of 2015, but not in the regional environment where it increased in the Departments of Atlantico, Cauca, and Quindio, maintaining a sustained upward trend above the annual average homicide rate in Antioquia, Choco, Guaviare, Meta, Nariño, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca, symmetrical to the presence of criminal structures in the Department of Atlantico.

Resumo O objetivo da investigação foi analisar a variação do homicídio durante a fase da negociação entre o Governo Nacional e a FARC, com relação aos artigos 103, 104, 104a, 105, 108 e 135 do código Penal Colombiano. Um estudo exploratório descritivo com enfoque misturado é apresentado, de uma perspectiva histórica. Como o resultado demonstrou-se uma relação positiva entre o homicídio e o contexto do conflito armado como ambiente específico, denotando que quando uma confrontação armada escalou ou diminuiu, no mesmo sentido comportou-se o punível. Da maneira do concomitante, a negociação marcou uma dinâmica do desescalamento do conflito armado, que selou a redução do ilícito ao nível nacional, com uma redução de 8.57%, ao comparar a taxa dos homicídios do ano 2012 com aquela de 2015, mas no meio regionais aumentou nos departamentos do Atlântico, do Cauca e de Quindío, mantendo uma tendência superior contínua à média anual da taxa dos homicídios em Antioquia, Chocó, Guaviare, Meta, Nariño, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Risaralda e Valle do Cauca, na simetria com a presença de estruturas criminalis no departamento do Atlántico.

La colusión, entendida como un pacto ilícito en daño a tercero, la cual se da en los procesos de contratación pública, es un acuerdo anticompetitivo sancionado por el numeral 9 del artículo 47 del Decreto 2153 de 1992, y más recientemente por la Ley 1474 de 2011 -Estatuto Anticorrupción-, mediante la cual se elevó a categoría de delito lo que antes solo era sancionable desde el punto de vista administrativo. Sin embargo, el modelo de sanción establecido en la normativa colombiana, si bien es bastante alto, sobre todo después de la categorización de delito de esta conducta, el verdadero problema radica en la aplicación de la misma, o mejor, en el organismo encargado de su aplicación. Así, como todo acuerdo anticompetitivo, la colusión es una conducta que genera grandes efectos en el mercado creado por el Estado, teniendo en cuenta que en la contratación pública la competencia se traslada a otro estadio del proceso competitivo, ya que aquí se compite por el mercado; encontrándonos ante un resultado similar al que obtendrían en situación de monopolio, toda vez que es ese el resultado que maximiza los beneficios totales que los productores pueden obtener del mercado.

Collusion, meaning an illegal agreement in third party damage, which occurs in procurement processes, is an anticompetitive agreement sanctioned by Article 47 Section 9 of Decree 2153 of 1992 and most recently by Act 1474 of 2011 Anti-Corruption Statute -in which, by means of the latter Act, was raised to the category of offense was punishable previously only from the administrative point of view. However, the penalty established model Colombian regulations, is a model of punishment that while it is quite high, especially after the categorization of offenses of this behavior, the real problem lies in the application of the same or better, the agency responsible for its implementation. So, like any anticompetitive agreement, collusion is conduct that creates great effects on the market created by the State, taking into account that public procurement, competition moves to another stage of the competitive process, since here it competes by the market, meeting with a result similar to that obtained in a monopoly situation, since that is the outcome that maximizes total benefits that producers can obtain from the market.

Transparency in insurance law attaches to the rights and duties of the parties, the relationships between insurers, insurance intermediaries such as agents and brokers, insurance supervisory law and insurance dispute resolution procedures. Regarding the rights and duties of the insurer and the prospective policyholder, it requires insurers to disclose precontractual information in a timely manner that is clear, understandable, legible and unambiguous. Transparency as a value is incredibly important in insurance contracts. This contribution focuses exclusively on the insurer's duty of disclosure during precontractual negotiations. Although the insured's duty of disclosure has enjoyed more attention in the past, the duty clearly applies to the insurance proposer as well as the insurer. The purpose of this contribution is to evaluate the nature and extent of the insurer's transparency duties as informed by both common and statutory laws. The insurer's duty is derived primarily from the statutory rights of access to information in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the Promotion of Access to Information Act. It is furthermore supported by specific insurance consumer protection law found in the detailed provisions on mandatory disclosures in the Financial Advisory and Intermediary Services Act, the Long-term Insurance Act, the Short-term Insurance Act and, finally, the Policyholder Protection Rules issued in accordance with these acts. Strict rules on advertising can be found in the General Code of Conduct issued under the FAIS Act. The Act furthermore specifically targets the activities of insurance intermediaries in precontractual disclosures. The fact that insurance products and services have been exempted from the scope of the Consumer Protection Act from 28 February 2014 should not diminish the insured's right to rely on universal consumer protection principles as envisaged by South African insurance legislation. The insurer's duty to disclose is in the last instance also derived from the common law duty not to make misrepresentations by commission or omission. When negotiating an insurance contract, the insurer's duty to speak is not based on a general requirement of bona fides, but is recognised as an ex lege duty due to the involuntary reliance of the prospective insured on information supplied by insurers in the market. A lack of transparency should lead to the insurer's accountability. A failure to disclose material information or a disclosure of false information that goes to the root of the matter and that induces the prospective policyholder to buy the insurance product is recognised as an actionable misrepresentation. Statutory provisions do not diminish the common-law duty not to make misrepresentations, but provide details of the nature and extent of the information duty to provide clarity and legal certainty in the determination of the standards of transparency required in law. In addition, statutes provide for enforcement actions by regulators, orders that could affect the licence of the insurer and provide for punishable offences and penalties. In terms of common law, a misrepresentation by omission or commission renders the insurance contract wholly or in part voidable. The policyholder may decide to rescind the contract and claim restitution. He may also, in conjunction with rescission, or as an alternative when deciding to maintain the contract, claim delictual damages or even constitutional damages when judged by a court of law as appropriate relief. Statutory remedies include a monetary award by the Insurance Ombud. Even though such an award is capped at R800 000, it is submitted that it is preferred to a civil law damages claim.

Con la expedición de la Ley 906 de 2004, actual sistema penal acusatorio, se consagró el llamado principio de oportunidad, que se concibe como la renuncia del Estado por intermedio de la Fiscalía General de La Nación de ejercer la acción penal para determinadas conductas punibles. Posteriormente, el Congreso de la República de Colombia, expidió la Ley 1312 de 2009 por medio de la cual, se reformó el artículo 323 del Sistema Penal Acusatorio, sin que se incluyera en ese tipo de conductas punibles los delitos de homicidio y lesiones personales culposas que en la legislación anterior, como lo es la ley 600 de 2000, se extinguía la acción penal por la indemnización integral. Quiere decir lo anterior, que en el nuevo sistema, esas conductas punibles a pesar de que puedan ser conciliables patrimonialmente, serán perseguibles hasta que se produzca el acto jurisdiccional definitivo como es la sentencia. Así las cosas, existe la probabilidad que los sujetos llamados a responder patrimonialmente entre ellos, como el directamente responsable, se abstengan de indemnizar los perjuicios que causen, congestionándose así, la jurisdicción penal. Con este artículo de reflexión se pretende demostrar la necesidad para el cuerpo normativo vigente en materia procesal penal como en efecto es la Ley 906 de 2004, actual sistema penal acusatorio, de regular o permitir el llamado principio de oportunidad, para el homicidio y las lesiones personales culposas simples.

With the 906 law of 2004, new penal system, the so-called principle of opportunity, which is conceived as a waiver by the State through the Attorney General of the Nation to institute criminal proceedings for certain criminal conduct was consecrated. Subsequently, the Congress of Colombia , issued Law 1312 of 2009 by which 323 article of the accusatory penal system was reformed, without the inclusion in such offenses punishable conduct homicide and Personal Injury in the previous legislation, such as the 600 , 2000 , a criminal action is extinguished by full compensation. This means that in the new system, those punishable conducts although they can be reconciled through civil action, behaviors can be prosecuted until final judicial act occurs as is the sentence. So, there is a likelihood that subjects are called to respond with their goods including as directly responsible, refrain to compensate the damages caused, and jamming criminal jurisdiction. This article aims to prove the need for the regulatory body force in criminal procedure as indeed is the Law 906 of 2004, new penal system, regulate or allow so-called principle of opportunity for homicide and injury willful personal simple.

This research is about the matching duty of the criminal judgement and problems that come along with its application by the Chilean tribunals (and Literature). The topic is analyzed setting the technical support after which builds on that obligation, as in the definition of the subject of the criminal procedure from a precise concept of the punishable act from a procedural perspective. This is the reason why we study the technical and theoretical positions about the concept of «fact» more appropriate to understand the complex issue that involves the matching duty of the criminal judgement, to resolve the problems that come along with is application as we explain in this study. To this purpose we analyze naturalists and normatives theories about the concept of «fact» and intend proving the practical consequence wether you submit to one or another theory.

El presente estudio trata del deber de correlación de la sentencia penal y los problemas de su aplicación presentados en la jurisprudencia (y doctrina) chilena. El tema es analizado fijando el supuesto técnico previo sobre el cual se construye dicho deber, como es la determinación del objeto del proceso a partir de un preciso concepto del hecho punible desde una perspectiva procesal. Es por ello que se analizan las posiciones teóricas y técnicas sobre el concepto del hecho, más apropiadas para responder a las complejas cuestiones comprendidas en el deber de correlación de la sentencia penal, destinadas a resolver los problemas de aplicación explicados en el estudio. Con ese propósito se analizan las teorías naturalistas y normativas del hecho y se intenta demostrar las repercusiones prácticas de sus respectivas aplicaciones.