Abstract During the last centuries of the Middle Ages, law had great development and canonists had an important role in it. Ius gentium was not an exception, on the contrary, the opening of Western Europe to other peoples was a reason for the study of the rules that could favour mutual relations. On the other hand, it was necessary for Western Europe to push the evangelization beyond the frontiers of the Christendom. Bearing in mind both factors, it is possible to hypothesize if the concern for the conversion of pagans can be accounted for as a motivation for the development of ius gentium.

Resumen Durante los últimos siglos de la Edad Media se produjo un gran desarrollo del derecho, en el que los canonistas tuvieron un importante papel. El derecho de gentes no fue una excepción, por el contrario, la creciente apertura del mundo occidental a pueblos de otros orígenes motivó el estudio de aquellas normas que podían favorecer las mutuas relaciones. Por otra parte, si bien el occidente europeo era cristiano, era necesario impulsar la evangelización más allá de las fronteras de la Cristiandad. Teniendo en cuenta ambos factores, es posible preguntarse si la preocupación por la conversión de los paganos constituyó un aliciente para el desarrollo de las normas de derecho de gentes y su profundización.

Abstract This article studies the question of the sources of international law. In particular, we analyze custom as a source of legislation. We take care of its evolution from the classical Ius Gentium to the modern ways of generating customary law through the governments' international practices. The idea is to reflect on whether certain decisions of the United Nations General Assembly that achieve some specifics can create new international customs. We also consider the consequences that may arise from these decisions.

Resumen El presente artículo estudia la cuestión de las fuentes del derecho internacional. Entre ellas, y de manera particular, se analiza la costumbre como fuente del derecho y su evolución desde el ius gentium clásico hasta las modernas formas de generar derecho consuetudinario a través de las prácticas internacionales de los Estados. En última instancia, la idea es reflexionar acerca de si ciertas decisiones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas, cumpliendo determinados requisitos, pueden crear nuevas costumbres internacionales, y las consecuencias que pueden derivarse de ello.

Resumo Este artigo aborda a questão das fontes do direito internacional. Entre eles, e de um modo particular, o costume é analisado como uma fonte de direito e sua evolução, desde o clássico ius gentium até os modos modernos de gerar o direito consuetudinário através das práticas internacionais dos Estados. Por último, analisa-se a possibilidade de que certas decisões da Assembleia Geral das Nações Unidas, que satisfazem certos requisitos podem gerar costume internacional e as consequências dê-lo.

The relationship between religion and law plays a crucial role within diverse societies. In this contribution some historical contours will be outlined and eventually related to a few relevant systematic remarks. Traditional societies are undifferentiated but in Greece some succeeded in developing the Athenian polis (city state). The basic motive of matter and form gave direction to Greek culture, initially dominated by the matter motive and later on by the form motive. The religions of nature were succeeded by the cultural religious motive of form, measure and harmony in which the Olympic Gods played a key role. The notions of justice and order obtained a more restricted juridical meaning during the 5th century B.C. related to what we today associate with positive law. However, Protagoras relativised the yearning towards what is considered to be immutable. Yet, despite his nominalistic-individualistic inclination Protagoras still viewed the polis as the formative cultural power shaping individuals. The cultural form thus obtained is constituted by obedience to the jural laws of the polis. Ancient Greece and Medieval conceptions departed from the nominalistic-individualistic legacy by continuing a universalistic or holistic view of religion, society and law. The initial meaning of the terms logos (concept) and nomos (law) is found in the meaning of law in a jural sense, although the cosmic scope of the term logos by far exceeded its juridical meaning. Developments within Roman Law were radically transformed during the fourth century in a twofold way. The expansion of the Roman empire gave rise to the ius gentium in order to make provision for the legal position of non-Romans within the Roman empire. At the same time Christianity surfaced and provided a starting point for the development of the subsequent Medieval contest between church and state. The culmination point of this struggle between church and state, religion and law, was reached when it was declared in the famous papal Bull, Unam Sanctam (1302) that there is no salvation outside the Roman Pontiff. The subsequent differentiation between church and state since the late Medieval era and the Renaissance moved towards a situation where the state acquired the upper hand. However, neither theoretical accounts nor the actual rise of the modern idea of the just state succeeded effectively to limit state power and secure religious freedom. More recently, the first Amendment of the USA Constitution secures religious freedom but sadly failed in guaranteeing academic (conviction) freedom at public schools. The significance of distinguishing between the jural aspect and the faith aspect of reality occupies a key position in the last part of our analysis. After a discussion of the jural function of both church and state, an account is given of personal freedom of faith as well as collective religious liberty which depends on the structural difference between public law, civil private law and non-civil private law (i.e. the internal sphere of competence of non-political societal entities). This analysis crucially depends upon the modal sphere-sovereignty of the jural and certitudinal aspects of reality, guaranteeing their mutual coherence and irreducibility. These aspects also guarantee the internal legal spheres of competence of collective faith communities and collective state communities, by respectively acknowledging the qualifying role of the faith aspect in the case of religious communities and the qualifying role of the jural aspect in the case of states.

Binne diverse samelewings speel die verhouding tussen godsdiens en reg 'n belangrike rol. Hierdie bydrae beoog om enkele historiese kontoere te omlyn en eventueel in verband te bring met 'n paar relevante sistematiese opmerkings. Tradisionele samelewings is ongedifferensieerd maar het in Griekeland daarin geslaag om die Atheense polis (stad-staat) te ontwikkel. Die grondmotief van materie en vorm het rigting gegee aan die ontwikkeling van die Griekse kultuur wat aanvanklik deur die materiemotief beheers is en later onder leiding van die vorm-motief ontwikkel het. Die natuurgodsdienste is opgevolg deur die natuurreligie van vorm, maat en harmonie waarin die Olimpiese Gode 'n vername rol gespeel het. Gedurende die 5de eeu voor Christus het die nosies van geregtigheid en orde 'n meer beperkte juridiese betekenis verkry, verbandhoudende met wat ons vandag as positiewe reg waardeer. Weliswaar het Protagoras die hunkering na die onverganklike gerelativeer. Ten spyte van sy nominalisties-individualistiese benadering het Protagoras nogtans gemeen dat die polis 'n kulturele vorm aan individue verskaf. Die kulturele omraming wat langs dié weg verkry is, word gekonstitueer deur gehoorsaamheid aan die juridiese wette van die polis. Antieke Griekeland en die Middeleeue het afstand geneem van die nominalisties-individualistiese erfenis deur aansluiting te vind by die holistiese of universalistiese siening van godsdiens, reg en samelewing. Die aanvanklike betekenis van die terme logos (begrip) en nomos (wet) is gegee in die betekenis van reg in 'n juridiese sin, hoewel die kosmiese reikwydte van die term logos die juridiese betekenis daarvan by verre oorskry. Ontwikkelinge binne die Romeinse reg het die vierde eeu radikaal gewysig in 'n tweevoudige sin. Die uitbreiding van die Romeinse Ryk het gelei tot die ontstaan van die ius gentium om regsvoorsiening vir die nie-Romeine in die Romeinse Ryk te maak. Die toenemende groei van die Christendom het gelei tot die daaropvolgende stryd tussen kerk en staat. Die kulminasiepunt van die stryd tussen kerk en staat is bereik met die uitreiking van die befaamde Pouslike Dekreet, die Unam Sanctam in 1302, waarvolgens daar geen saligheid buite die Roomse Pontiff is nie. Die daaropvolende differensiëring van kerk en staat teen die einde van die Middeleeue en die Renaissance het daartoe gelei dat die staat die oorhand verwerf het. Desnietemin het nóg teoretiese weergawes nóg praktiese staatkundige ontwikkelinge effektief daarin geslaag om owerheidsgesag in te perk en godsdiensvryheid te verseker. Die Eerste Amendement van die Amerikaanse Grondwet betrek godsdiensvryheid maar het in publieke skole gefaal waar Darwin nie gekritiseer mag word en Christelike oortuigings uitgeban is. Die betekenis van die onderskeiding tussen die regsaspek en geloofsaspek van die werklikheid beklee 'n sleutelposisie in die laaste gedeelte van hierdie bydrae. Na 'n bespreking van die juridiese funksie van kerk en staat word rekenskap gegee van persoonlike geloofsvryheid sowel as van kollektiewe godsdiensvryheid wat afhanklik is van die struktuurverskil tussen die volgende regsfere: die domein van die publieke reg, die burgerlike privaatreg en die nieburgerlike privaatreg. Laasgenoemde betref die interne bevoegdheidsfere van die niestaatlike samelewingsvorme. Hierdie ontleding is deurslaggewend afhanklik van die modale soewereiniteit in eie kring van die regs- en geloofsaspekte van die werklikheid, wat as waarborg dien vir die wedersyde samehang en onherleibaarheid van hierdie aspekte. Hierdie aspekte dien ook as waarborg vir die interne kompetensiesfere van geloofs-verbande en staatsverbande deur die kwalifiserende rolle in elk te vervul - die kwalifiserende geloofsaspek in die geval van godsdienstige groeperinge en die kwalifiserende juridiese aspek in die geval van die staat as regsverband.

Resumen Desde finales del siglo XVIII China ha renovado su atención hacia el sistema de derecho romano. A partir de 1978 surgió el interés en los juristas chinos por el contacto directo con las fuentes antiguas. La respuesta inicial fue el "Observatorio sobre codificación y formación del jurista en China desde la perspectiva del sistema de derecho romano". Esto ha derivado en lo que los colegas chinos han calificado como una "segunda recepción". Los trabajos para el código civil han contribuido al crecimiento de la ciencia jurídica china, y el código es el resultado de ese desarrollo. En este proceso es de gran importancia la permanente afirmación de que el ius en el sistema es el resultado de una pluralidad de fuentes, y en particular de lo que establecen el pueblo (leyes y costumbres) y la iuris scientia. La finalidad de esta pluralidad de fuentes resulta esencial para la constante actualización del ius gentium y de sus principios en el esfuerzo común por acrecentar el sistema.

Abstract China has, since the end of the eighteenth century, renewed its orientation towards the system of Roman law. After 1978, there was a demand from Chinese jurists for direct contact with ancient sources. The Observatory on codification and training of the jurist in China under the Roman legal system has started a response. It is derived from what a Chinese colleague had qualified as a "second reception". Civil Code work develops the growth of Chinese legal science and the Code is the fruit of this development. In this process, it is of central importance the permanent recognition that ius in the system is the result of a plurality of sources, and in particular the statutes of the people (law and custom) and iuris scientia. The role of this plurality of sources is then essential for the permanent updating of ius gentium and its principles in the common work of system enhancement.

ABSTRACT: The present article aims to reconstruct a part of ius naturae et gentium europaeum`s history from a transatlantic view. Johannes Heineccius`s Elementa iuris naturae et gentium (1737) was appropriated by the lawyer Juan Egaña to the academic national field in 1812-1813 for the teaching of the Natural Law and Law of Nation at the National Institute of Chile. Heineccius was a transatlantic author and his high school textbooks experienced an academic use in 18th and 19th century, which also can include the Latin-American intellectual culture. This survey discusses so the role of this compendium as transfer of the legal European rationality to the process of intellectual construction of the nation state’s normativity in Chile.

RESUMEN: El presente artículo busca reconstruir una parte de la historia del Derecho Natural y de Gentes europeo desde una perspectiva transatlántica. El compendio de Johannes Heineccius Elementa iuris naturae et gentium (1737) fue adaptado en el ámbito académico nacional por medio del jurista Juan Egaña en 1812 -1813, para la enseñanza del Derecho Natural y de Gentes en el Instituto Nacional. Heineccius fue un autor transatlántico y sus textos estudiantiles experimentaron un uso académico en el siglo XVIII y XIX, que también puede incluir a la cultura intelectual latinoamericana. Este trabajo discute entonces el rol de este compendio como medio de transferencia de la racionalidad jurídica europea en el proceso de construcción intelectual de la normatividad del estado nación en Chile.

The main objective of this article is to highlight that during the Roman Monarchy the kings had already introduced major initiatives in order to maintain good relations with their neighbors. The mechanisms used, such as embassies, agreements and treaties, all protected and guaranteed by the law and the gods, allow us to distinguish diplomatic formulas that will become the foundations of the coexistence of Rome with other peoples and cultures, as well as a system for foreign relations that, in many ways, can be found in current diplomacy

Este artículo tiene como principal objetivo destacar cómo en el período de la monarquía romana ya se pueden ver importantes iniciativas de parte de los reyes, con el fin de mantener buenas relaciones con sus vecinos. Los mecanismos empleados, como las embajadas, los acuerdos y tratados, todos ellos amparados y avalados por el derecho y los dioses, nos permiten distinguir ya fórmulas de carácter diplomático, que se convertirán en las bases de la convivencia de Roma con otros pueblos y culturas, como también, en un sistema para las relaciones exteriores que, en muchos de sus aspectos, los encontramos en la diplomacia actual.

In this Lecture delivered at the Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas of Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, after receiving the Premio Internacional de Investigación en Derecho Héctor Fix-Zamudio, in Mexico City, November 23, 2006, the author describes the implications for Legal Theory and Philosophy of two recent phenomena, which have become trends in legal practice, and challenges an idea closely associated with legal positivism, i.e. law is identified with a State through its sovereigns or conventions, by proposing that law escapes from national boundaries and territories.

En su conferencia magistral dictada en el Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, después de recibir el Premio Internacional de Investigación en Derecho Héctor Fix-Zamudio, en la Ciudad de México, el 23 de noviembre de 2006, el autor describe las implicaciones para la filosofía y teoría jurídica de dos fenómenos recientes, los cuales se han convertido en tendencias en la práctica jurídica, y cuestiona una idea estrechamente relacionada con el positivismo jurídico, i.e. el derecho es identificado con un Estado a través de sus soberanos o convenciones, al proponer que el derecho escapa de las fronteras y territorios nacionales.

A concept unities a multiplicity of identified features into a logical-analytical unity and it presupposes the universality of each one of these properties. On the basis of a conceptual analysis of the nature and seat of the term differentiation, analogical usages of it guided our understanding of the difference between undifferentiated and differentiated societies. Whereas the Greek-Medieval legacy mainly focused on thing concepts (captured in the substance concept), the modern era (since the Renaissance) increasingly gave prominence to function concepts. The term differentiation does not refer to a thing concept, but to a biological function concept. When a living entity grows an increasing complexity emerges because its organic activities differentiate while, at the same time these differentiated activities are also integrated into the biotic unity of such a living entity. As a biological function concept the term differentiation is intimately connected to the multifunctional nature of living entities. Every living entity is a unity amidst a multiplicity of organic activities (quantitative function), which is an enduring and cohering organic whole (totality) in which all the organic parts are constantly interacting. Biotic growth therefore encompasses both the differentiation of the organic activities of a living entity and the integration of these activities. Although these biotic features are unique their functional meaning only comes to full expression in the coherence between the biotic aspect of living entities and those non-biotic functions within which they appear as analogies of the original meaning of the biotic mode. The differentiation of sense-organs within sentient creatures (animals and humans) shows that within the sensitive aspect an analogy of biotic differentiation and integration is found. The logical-analytical abilities of human beings also give shelter to these biotic analogies, reflected in speaking of logical-analytical differentiation and integration. The normed nature of logical-analytical activities highlight another peculiar feature of the post-sensitive aspects, namely that one can distinguish between analogies on the norm-side of these aspects, correlated with analogies at the factual side. The uniqueness of every number in the succession of (natural) numbers serves as the foundation for the logical principles of identity and non-contradiction, enabling the distinction between logically sound and illogical concepts and arguments. Likewise the principle of sufficient ground analogically reflects, on the norm-side of the logical-analytical aspect, the physical relation of cause and effect (causality). Among the cultural-historical modal principles attention is given to the principles of historical continuity, historical differentiation and historical integration. It is then shown that these modal historical principles are specified in a typical way within societal processes, particularly the process of societal differentiation. Reflection on the nature of human society inevitably stumbles upon analogical usages of these terms, particularly when an account is given of the difference between undifferentiated and differentiated societies. The undifferentiated nature of traditional societies embraces a multiplicity of interwoven societal structures that are, within non-traditional societies, differentiated societal entities with a distinct form of organization. One can therefore distinguish between an undifferentiated and a differentiated foundation and qualification. In traditional societies the undifferentiated foundation is found in a single form of organization and its undifferentiated qualification is found in the role of one of the intertwined structures. In die case of differentiated societalforms a unique foundational function and qualifying function is present. The state, for example, has its foundational function in the cultural-historical aspect (organized in a territorial power-formation) and its qualifying function in the jural aspect (giving everyone his or her due). The development from early Roman law (the initial ius civile - which was an exclusive folk-law) to the later ius gentium, broadened the scope but did not open the way for a differentiation of church and state during the medieval era. After the struggle for dominance (between the emperor and the pope) the late-Scholastic nominalistic movement paved the way for this differentiation. Elias has shown that a money economy (coins used in exchanges as a common measure) was a necessary condition for the differentiation of labour. The modern university emerged in the subsequent process of societal differentiation which, during the industrial revolution, was followed by the differentiation of the domestic family business into the nuclear family and the business firm. The rise of national states in Western Europe was accompanied by this process through which distinct societal entities with their own societal responsibilities and competence came to the fore. In spite of individualistic and universalistic theories of the social contract, the modern states of the past two centuries witnessed an increasing awareness of basic political and civil freedoms - all in all the fruits of an extensive historical process of societal differentiation. It is also remarkable that theorists from disciplines such as law, political science and sociology (Kuyper, Habermas, Rawls, and Münch) show an awareness of the importance of acknowledging sphere-sovereign societal entities with their societal freedoms.

Hierdie artikel verg enersyds begripsonderskeidinge en andersyds 'n oorsigtelike beeld van ongedifferensieerde en gedifferensieerde samelewings. Waar ding-begrippe in die Grieks-Middeleeuse intellektuele erfenis prominent was (die vraag na die konkrete wat-heid van die dinge), sou die moderne ontwikkelinge sedert die Renaissance al meer klem op funksie-begrippe plaas (die vraag na die hoedanigheid van dinge). In die lig van hierdie onderskeiding blyk dit dat die term differensiasie 'n biotiese funksiebegrip is wat ten nouste verband hou met die multifunksionele aard van lewende dinge - wat tewens 'n eenheid in die menigvuldigheid organiese aktiwiteite daarvan vertoon (getalsfunksie), en wat 'n samehangende (organiese) geheel met integrale dele vorm wat in voortdurende wisselwerking met mekaar staan (die ruimtelike, kinematiese en fisiese funksies). Biotiese groei omvat beide die vertakking (differensiasie) van lewensfunksies en die saambind (integrasie) daarvan. Besinning oor die aard van die menslike samelewing stuit onvermydelik op die analogiese gebruik van hierdie biotiese terme (differensiasie en integrasie). Dit gebeur spesifiek wanneer van ongedifferensieerde en gedifferensieerde samelewings gepraat word. Waar die individuele mens grootliks in ongedifferensieerde samelewings opgaan (as deel van 'n groter geheel), bied die langsame kultuur-historiese proses van samelewingsdifferensiasie eventueel ruimte vir die uitkristallisering van die staat as regsverband naas en in onderskeiding van 'n menigvuldigheid nie-staatlike samelewingsvorme - en tegelyk tree daar 'n persoonlike vryheidsfeer na vore waarin die persoonlike ruimte van individue onderken word afgesien van enige lewensvorm-verbintenis waarin die mens as deel van 'n groter geheel mag optree. Dit lei tot die gevolgtrekking dat differensiasie inderdaad die basis van ons publieke vryhede, persoonlike vryhede en samelewingsvryhede vorm. Die terme wat in die titel van hierdie artikel vervat is, is ongewyfeld bekend uit ons alledaagse spraakgebruik. Sodra daar egter nader rekenskap gegee wil word van bepaalde konnotasies waarin dit ook in 'n filosofiese besinning gebruik kan word, blyk dit spoedig dat dit nie so 'n eenvoudige taakstelling is nie.

El presente trabajo es una exposición sobre la teoría del derecho de Fernando Vázquez (1512-1569), con especial énfasis en la naturaleza del derecho de gentes (o internacional), el principio de libertad de los mares y el derecho natural. Vázquez es uno de los principales autores de la escolástica española e incluso se le considera como el jurista salmantino más importante. Por eso, me parece, el análisis de sus doctrinas resulta de especial interés, tanto desde el punto histórico como desde la perspectiva estrictamente ius filosófica.

This paper is an exposition about the theory of justice of Fernando Vázquez (1512-1569). In particular, is a study of the nature of ius gentium (or international law), the principle of freedom of the seas and the natural law. Vázquez is one of the main authors of the Spanish Neoscholastic. Even he is considered as the most important jurist of The Salamanca School. So, I think, the exposition of her doctrines has a special interest, for the historians and philosophers.

The expression ius hostium is quite uncommon in Roman legal language. It appears in Tryphoninus D. 49.15.12.9: the jurist deals with the legal status of a slave freed in enemy territory but then returned to territory controlled by the Romans. In a conflict between two Romans claiming the slave's property or between one of them and the slave, the rules on postliminium are applied regardless of what happened iure hostium. A complete exegesis of the difficult and somewhat sinuous text cannot be given here. However, Tryphoninus at least implicitly recognises the validity of the „enemies' law" for their own sphere. Furthermore, it cannot be excluded that his solution links one party of the case to its former conduct under foreign law. This is in line with the basic idea of reciprocity underlying Roman public international law as well as with the supposed universality of slavery as a legal institution. The enemy as defined by public international law is regarded as a subject of law and even as a possible creator of law, not as an entity outside the legal sphere.

The historical roots of the concept of protection of trust are found in the ius gentium which was primarily developed to govern the relations between Romans and foreigners or amongst foreigners themselves. The foundation of the ius gentium lies infides, namely that fiduciary duty which was characterised as fundamentum iustitiae by Cicero and which was commented upon by Ulpian with the words "grave estfidem fallere". In fact, if no inherent legal structures exist, one may only find common ground by referring to mutual trust, as it is on this basis that judicial relations can be established. Furthermore, fides has become the benchmark for contractual obligations in the form of bona fides, which has been given content through a discourse between jurists for centuries. Hence, bona fides constitutes the protection of trust. Entering into a contract based on bona fides determines accountability. This study examines the development of the concept of protection of trust through the contributions of the Roman jurists.

The author analyses Romulus' role, monarch that, albeit having an aggressive image, he expresses himself through formal diplomatic actions, as a governor that, above all, attempts to avoid conflicts with the neighboring peoples. Secondly, the government of Numa Pompilius, pacific and religious king that renounces to the use of force and creates a diplomacy through which he seeks to maintain the best relationships with the peoples of the Lazio, is studied. Romulus lays the foundations of a formal diplomacy and Numa enjoys it and increases it.

El autor analiza el papel de Rómulo, monarca que pese a su imagen agresiva se manifiesta a través de acciones diplomáticas formales, como un gobernante que busca antes que nada evitar los conflictos con los pueblos vecinos. En segundo término se estudia el gobierno de Numa Pompilio, rey pacífico y religioso, que renuncia al empleo de la fuerza y crea una diplomacia, por medio de la cual procura mantener las mejores relaciones con los pueblos del Lacio. Rómulo echa las bases de una diplomacia formal y Numa lo disfruta e incrementa.

In On the Recently Discovered American Indians (1538), Francisco de Vitoria states that there is natural communication and society among all human beings. Forty years later, in Lima, the Jesuit JOSÉ DE Acosta, in On the Salvation of the Indians (1576), writes a report about how to put into practice this communication through peaceful preaching. It is a kind of communication treatise, in which he also denounces the practice of forcing conversions. To Acosta, successful communication of the gospel to Indians signifies a willing shift of beliefs and actions, based on what he considers natural reason. This philosophical and theological discussion shows that there is a normative interweaving between ius gentium, ius civile and ecclesiastic law, and that a contemporary theory of communication has a lot to learn from the paradigmatic and partially failed case of communicating the gospel in America.

En Los indios recién descubiertos (1538), Francisco de Vitoria afirma que hay una comunicación y sociedad natural entre todos los seres humanos. Cuarenta anos después, en Lima, el jesuita JOSÉ DE Acosta, en Sobre la salvación de los indios (1576), escribe una suerte de informe sobre cómo poner en práctica esta comunicación por medio de métodos pacificos de predicación. Es un tipo de tratado de comunicación, en el cual denuncia la práctica de las conversiones forzadas. Para Acosta, el éxito de la comunicación del evangelio a los indios supone un cambio voluntario de creencias y acciones, basado en lo que él considera la razón natural. Esta discusión filosófica y teológica muestra que hay un entretejido normativo entre el ius gentium, ius civile y ley eclesiástica, y que la actual teoria de la comunicación tiene mucho que aprender de este caso paradigmático y parcialmente fracasado de comunicación del evangelio en América.

L'objet de cette étude est le concept de " société et communication naturelle" proposée par Francisco de Vitoria dans son Relectio de Indis et constitue le premier titre légitime de la domination espagnole en Amérique. On a écrit beaucoup sur lui sans avoir atteint une clarification satisfaisant de son concept ; son contenu est toujours sombre, parce que Vitoria ne l'ont pas été ni définis ni divulgué leurs sources directes, ce fait qui est le point de départ pour utiliser une interprétation de ce concept basé sur le système qui est dans le fond de la Relectio de Indis et nous amène à reconstruire leurs sources afin de se rapprocher de leur bonne compréhension.

The subject of this survey is the concept of "naturalis et societatis communicationis" propounded by Francisco de Vitoria in his Relectio de Indis, which acts as the first legitimate title of spanish ownership of America. There has been a great deal of writings about it, but they have not come to a satisfactory comprehension of it; its content remains invariably ambiguous since Vitoria did not leave any definition nor did divulge its direct sources; feature that serves as the initial point of an interpretation of this concept based on the system that lies in the context of the Relectio de Indis, which carry us to reconstruct its sources in order to approach to its appropriate comprehension.

Objeto del presente estudio es el concepto de "sociedad y comunicación natural" que propone Francisco de Vitoria en su Relectio de Indis y constituye el primer título legítimo de dominio español sobre América. Se ha escrito bastante sobre él sin haberse llegado a una aclaración satisfactoria de su concepto; su contenido queda siempre oscuro por no haber sido definido por Vitoria ni haber éste divulgado sus fuentes directas, hecho que es el punto de partida para recurrir a una interpretación de este concepto con base en el sistema que está de fondo en la Relectio de Indis y que nos lleva a reconstruir sus fuentes, a fin de acercarnos a su comprensión debida.

Abstract The French translation of the Nicomachean Ethics done by Oresme in the 14th century has some interesting notes explaining the Aristotelian text. In this paper we present his interpretation of passage V 7, 1134b18-1135a5 of the NE, where a distinction is made between natural and conventional justice. Even though Oresme is influenced by Aquinas, his commentary shows great independence of thought and is a very interesting example of the transition from the medieval to the modern world.

Resumen La traducción francesa de la Ética a Nicómaco que llevó a cabo Nicolás Oresme en el siglo XIV incluye unas interesantes notas explicativas del texto aristotélico. En este trabajo se expone su interpretación del pasaje de EN V 7, 1134b18-1135a5, donde se distingue entre la justicia natural y la convencional. Si bien Oresme está influido por Tomás de Aquino, su comentario muestra gran independencia de juicio y constituye un ejemplo muy interesante del tránsito entre el mundo medieval y el moderno.