Resumo: O Brasil e o Uruguai são países com tradição histórica na acolhida de refugiados, especialmente daqueles que são vítimas de conflitos armados ao redor do mundo e, devido à proximidade das regiões continentais, daqueles que são forçados a abandonar seus países devido a crises políticas e financeiras. Com base nessas premissas, o presente trabalho acadêmico abordará o panorama dos direitos fundamentais dos refugiados, destacando a legislação do Brasil e do Uruguai, e explorando os desenvolvimentos específicos relacionados a novas questões de proteção de vulnerabilidades de gênero e sexualidade, assim como questões coletivas, como os impactos irreversíveis causados pelas mudanças climáticas. Por fim, pretende-se demonstrar a possibilidade de adotar novos critérios técnicos e legislativos e medidas para fortalecer a proteção dos refugiados, destacando a importância de implementar políticas públicas que atendam a um maior número de necessitados e atualizem os conceitos e instrumentos jurídicos que tratam das novas dificuldades desse cenário

Resumen: Brasil y Uruguay son países con tradición histórica en la acogida de refugiados, especialmente aquellos que son víctimas de conflictos armados en el mundo y, por las regiones continentales cercanas, aquellos que se ven obligados a abandonar sus países debido a crisis políticas y financieras. Con estas premisas, el presente trabajo académico abordará el panorama de los derechos fundamentales de los refugiados, destacando la legislación de Brasil y Uruguay, y explorando los desarrollos específicos relacionados con nuevas cuestiones de protección de vulnerabilidades de género y sexualidad, así como cuestiones colectivas, como los impactos irreversibles causados por el cambio climático. Finalmente, se pretende demostrar la posibilidad de adoptar nuevos criterios técnicos y legislativos y medidas para fortalecer la protección de los refugiados, destacando la importancia de implementar políticas públicas que abarquen a un mayor número de necesitados y actualicen los conceptos e instrumentos jurídicos que aborden las nuevas dificultades del escenario

Abstract: Brazil and Uruguay have a historical tradition of welcoming refugees, especially those who are victims of armed conflicts around the world, and, due to their proximity to neighboring regions, those forced to leave their countries due to political and financial crises. With these premises, this academic paper will explore the landscape of fundamental rights for refugees, focusing on the legislation of Brazil and Uruguay. It will also delve into specific developments related to new issues of protection concerning gender and sexuality vulnerabilities, as well as collective issues, such as the irreversible impacts of climate change. Finally, the paper aims to demonstrate the possibility of adopting new technical and legislative criteria and measures to strengthen refugee protection. The importance of implementing public policies that reach a greater number of people in need and that update the legal concepts and instruments to address the emerging challenges is highlighted

There is an intrinsic connection between genocide and colonialism where both concepts are in close proximity and are based on the logic of elimination. The fact that an active genocide of the Palestinian people continues in 2024 is extremely disturbing. A plethora of human rights laws and principles complement and reinforce the protections afforded under international humanitarian law. These laws were developed in order to prevent historical atrocities from repeating themselves. As history is re-written, it is submitted that these laws, while good on paper, are not being put into practice in the case of Palestine. This article reflects on the application of specific international humanitarian laws, namely protecting healthcare, preserving nutrition and safeguarding children during times of conflict, and analyses how these protections are being flouted in the case of Gaza.

In June 2022, the United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed Conflict expressed that the ongoing use and recruitment of children in armed conflict globally warrants "international concern". Notwithstanding the existence of proscriptive norms in terms of international humanitarian law (IHL) and international human rights law (IHRL), international legal violations are nevertheless committed by states and non-state actors. A systematic analysis of the respective normative systems identifies a lacuna between specific provisions thereof. Consequently, violations are committed in armed conflicts for the purposes of IHRL but not IHL, it is contended that this inconsistency in the law perpetuates ongoing child soldiering. It is further contended that this inconsistency establishes a genus of children who are legally unprotected as they fall between the cracks of international law. Based on progressive jurisprudence of the International Court of Justice, an approach which will bridge the lacuna between these norms is proposed. Contrary to the view of the International Committee of the Red Cross and with due consideration for the lex specialis principle, it is proposed that the IHL and IHRL instruments should apply in a complementary fashion, as opposed to the separate legal regimes under which they have developed.

This paper explores the international humanitarian law classification which applies to foreign fighters that have been enlisted in the Ukrainian International Legion of Territorial Defence pursuant to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The paper explains the legal rights, obligations and consequences which attach to mercenary, combatant and prisoner of war status; and explores how these foreign members of the Ukrainian International Legion of Territorial Defence fit into this legal landscape. This paper challenges the legality of Russia's decision to classify these individuals as mercenaries. The paper supports the argument that these foreign members of the Ukrainian International Legion of Territorial Defence are entitled to combatant status including full combatant immunity from prosecution upon capture. The paper explores the prisoner of war rights and protections which these individuals should be afforded upon capture and details their denial. The paper reiterates the international humanitarian law fair trial guarantees which are activated when combatants fall into enemy hands and questions the procedural legality of the trials being conducted in the self-proclaimed Donetsk People's Republic and Russia.

'Pope calls on G7 leaders to ban use of autonomous weapons' (The Guardian 2024) is the headline from statements which pope Franziskus made during the G7-summit on June 14th, 2024. In general it can be observed that the ethical debate concerning the use of autonomous weapon systems (AWS) is an extremely complex and contentious issue, raising both technical and ethical challenges. Through a comparative analysis of relevant literature the theological perspective is introduced into the debate and highlight potential implications for the use of AWS. The increasing autonomy, where machines can autonomously select and engage targets, raises questions regarding compliance with international humanitarian law, the preservation of human dignity and moral responsibility. The research question addressed in this article is as follows: 'What are the theological-ethical arguments regarding the use of AWS?' In conclusion, three key points for a theological-ethical examination consist of the question about the pessimistic human image as a premise of the pro-AWS argumentation and ethical questions based on the highest or preferable good as well as on moral responsibility. It is synthesised, that the pessimistic human image can be represented, that as highest good right to life should be preferred against human dignity and that moral responsibility always should stick on humans and not on AWS. INTRADISCIPLINARY AND/OR INTERDISCIPLINARY IMPLICATIONS: This article positions theological ethics within the emerging field of ethical dilemmas arising from autonomous functions in the realm of technical ethics.

Abstract Amidst the ongoing armed conflict triggered by Russian aggression, Ukraine faces the formidable task of upholding fair trial standards and ensuring justice for conflict-related crimes. This research explores the challenges encountered by the Ukrainian judicial system in the aftermath of the aggression. The study investigates the impact of the conflict on the country’s ability to prosecute violations of international humanitarian law. Despite the complexity of the situation, Ukraine’s judiciary has demonstrated resilience in upholding fair trial guarantees. However, obstacles persist, necessitating a thorough examination of the legal and operational context. The study adopts a systematic approach, delving into contextual considerations, the state of the Ukrainian judiciary, and survey data analysis to highlight organizational, ethical, political and social challenges. The research contributes valuable insights to the discourse on justice and accountability in regions affected by armed conflict, underscoring the need for continuous efforts to safeguard fair trial principles in Ukraine. aggression conflictrelated related crimes countrys country s law situation Ukraines guarantees However persist context approach considerations organizational ethical

Resumo Em meio ao conflito armado em curso desencadeado pela agressão russa, a Ucrânia enfrenta a enorme tarefa de defender padrões do justo processo e garantir justiça para crimes relacionados com o conflito. Este artigo explora os desafios enfrentados pelo sistema judicial ucraniano após a agressão. O estudo investiga o impacto do conflito na capacidade do país de processar violações do direito humanitário internacional. Apesar da complexidade da situação, o sistema judicial da Ucrânia demonstrou resiliência na defesa de garantias de um julgamento justo. No entanto, persistem obstáculos que exigem uma análise aprofundada do contexto jurídico e operacional. Esta pesquisa adota uma abordagem sistemática, investigando considerações contextuais, o estado do sistema judicial ucraniano e a análise de dados de inquéritos para destacar os desafios organizacionais, éticos, políticos e sociais. A pesquisa apresenta informações valiosas para o debate sobre justiça e responsabilização em regiões afetadas por conflitos armados, sublinhando a necessidade de esforços contínuos para salvaguardar os princípios de um processo justo na Ucrânia. russa internacional situação entanto operacional sistemática contextuais organizacionais éticos sociais armados

Resumen Es comúnmente aceptado que los grupos armados cuasiestatales pueden violar el derecho internacional humanitario y que, bajo ciertas circunstancias, sus miembros pueden cometer violaciones de derecho penal internacional y derechos humanos. Sin embargo, dada la propia naturaleza de estos grupos y el controvertido papel que juegan en el derecho internacional, el derecho de sus víctimas a obtener reparaciones es comúnmente cuestionado. Este artículo describe las cuestiones jurídicas que rodean a las violaciones graves al derecho internacional cometidas por estos grupos y argumenta que sus víctimas tienen derecho a obtener reparaciones.

Abstract It is commonly accepted that quasi-state Non-State Armed Groups may violate international humanitarian law and that, under certain circumstances, their members may commit breaches of international criminal and human rights law. However, given the very nature of such groups -and their controversial role in the international legal system-, their victims’ right to reparations is often questioned. This article outlines the legal questions surrounding serious violations of international law committed by Non-State Armed Groups and argues that their victims are entitled to reparations.

Résumé Il est communément admis que les groupes armés quasi étatiques peuvent violer le droit international humanitaire et que, dans certaines circonstances, leurs membres peuvent commettre violations de droit pénal international et de droits de l’homme. Pourtant, à cause de la nature de ces groupes et le rôle controversé qu’ils jouent dans le droit international, le droit des leurs victimes à obtenir réparations est remis en question. Cet article décrit les questions juridiques autour de graves violations de droit international commises par ces groupes et argumente que leurs victimes ont le droit à obtenir réparations.

Resumen El presente artículo tiene como objetivo analizar las obligaciones jurídico-internacionales, así como su naturaleza, para las partes del conflicto armado, internacional y no internacional, en relación con la prohibición del envenenamiento de los alimentos como método y medio de guerra. Dado que los conflictos armados conducen a las formas más severas de hambruna de la población civil y que no se ha localizado a lo largo del derecho de los conflictos armados, una prohibición explícita de envenenar los alimentos como método de guerra, es por lo que nos hemos planteado escoger este tema de investigación. El trabajo se complementa con el análisis de la prohibición de envenenar los alimentos como medio de guerra y de la posible atribución de responsabilidad penal internacional por violación de la obligación que proscribe esta práctica, que aun no siendo explícita o específica se deduce de las normas convencionales, consuetudinarias y de los principios del derecho internacional humanitario.

Abstract This article aims to analyze legal-international obligations, as well as their nature, for the parties to the armed conflict, international and non-international, in relation to the prohibition of food poisoning as a method and means of warfare. Armed conflicts lead to the most severe forms of famine of the civilian population, however, throughout the law of armed conflicts, an explicit prohibition of poisoning food as a method of warfare has not been found, which is why we have proposed to choose this research topic. The work is complemented with the analysis of the prohibition of food poisoning as a means of war and the possible attribution of international criminal responsibility for violation of the obligation that proscribes this practice that, although not being explicit or specific, is deduced from the conventional norms, customary and the principles of international humanitarian law.

Résumé Cet article vise à analyser les obligations juridiques internationales, ainsi que leur nature, pour les parties à un conflit armé international et non international en ce qui concerne l’interdiction de l’empoisonnement alimentaire comme méthode et moyen de guerre. Les conflits armés conduisent aux formes les plus graves de famine de la population civile, pourtant aucune interdiction explicite de l’empoisonnement alimentaire comme méthode de guerre n’a été trouvée dans le droit des conflits armés. C’est pourquoi nous avons choisi ce sujet de recherche. L’article est complété par une analyse de l’interdiction de l’empoisonnement alimentaire en tant que moyen de guerre et de l’attribution éventuelle d’une responsabilité pénale internationale pour la violation de l’obligation proscrivant cette pratique, qui, bien que non explicite ou spécifique, est déduite des normes conventionnelles et coutumières et des principes du droit international humanitaire.

Resumen A propósito de la República de Texas, en este ensayo se hace un estudio sobre el marco teórico jurídico de la secesión y creación de nuevos Estados, tanto en el derecho internacional del siglo XIX como en el derecho internacional de nuestro tiempo. En el derecho internacional del siglo XIX la secesión era fundamentalmente una cuestión de hecho. Y el aval definitivo era el beneplácito de la comunidad internacional, principalmente de las grandes potencias. Hoy en día es imposible admitir la secesión o anexión cuando interviene un tercer Estado o cuando esta intervención se realiza mediante la fuerza militar. Para que la secesión y anexión de Estados sea válida debe ser en cumplimiento de la legalidad internacional, en donde destaca la aceptación del Estado predecesor, el cumplimiento del principio de integridad territorial, salvo los casos en donde ese Estado vulnere los derechos de una población oprimida, y también se reivindica la garantía plena de los derechos humanos y del derecho humanitario.

Abstract About the Republic of Texas in this essay a study is made on the legal theoretical framework of the succession and creation of new States, both in the international law of the 19th century and in the international law of our time. In the 19th century, secession was fundamentally a matter of fact. And the definitive guarantee was the approval of the international community, mainly of the great powers. In time present it is impossible to admit secession or annexation when a third State intervenes or when this intervention is carried out through military force. For the secession and annexation of States to be valid, it must be in compliance with international legality, which highlights the acceptance of the predecessor State, compliance with the principle of territorial integrity, except in cases where that State violates the rights of an oppressed population, and the full guarantee of human rights and humanitarian law is also claimed.

Résumé Concernant la République du Texas, dans cet essai une étude est faite sur le cadre juridique théorique de la sécession et de la création de nouveaux États, tant dans le droit international du XIXe siècle que dans le droit international de notre temps. Dans le droit international du XIXe siècle, sécession était fondamentalement une question de fait. Et la garantie définitive était l’approbation de la communauté internationale, principalement des grandes puissances. Aujourd’hui, il est impossible d’admettre la sécession ou l’annexion lorsqu’un État tiers intervient dans ce processus, ou lorsque l’intervention se fait par la force militaire. Pour que la sécession et l’annexion d’Etats soient valables, elles doivent résulter du respect de la légalité internationale, qui met en exergue l’acceptation de l’Etat prédécesseur, du respect du principe d’intégrité territoriale, sauf dans les cas où cet Etat viole les droits d’une population opprimée, et la pleine garantie des droits de l’homme et du droit humanitaire est également revendiquée.

Abstract Foreign trade in conventional arms and dual-use material is an activity regulated and controlled by the State, which is essential to prevent undesired diversions and avoid misuse by the recipient of the arms. For this reason, in view of the potential danger involved in the export of arms, States adopt the system of prior licensing to authorize their export. This paper explores the general problems of arms exports, highlighting the implications of this activity for peace, security and the prevention of serious human rights violations, and then examines the normative limits that supranational legislation has imposed on States, specifically the Arms Trade Treaty of 2 April 2013 and the European Union Common Position 2008/944/CFSP of 8 December 2008 defining common rules governing the control of exports of military technology and equipment. It will also analyze the arms export regime in Spain, the problem of the secrecy of the export file and the implications that this regulation may have for Spanish criminal law, especially for the crime of smuggling or administrative malfeasance of officials. Additionally, the paper raises the need to assess, de lege ferenda, the inclusion of new criminal offenses in the field of ex post control and monitoring once the weapons have arrived at their destination. The avoidance of undesired diversion to criminal groups and the verification of the final use of the weapons are essential duties of the States and the companies of the sector, taking into account the potentially harmful effects of armament on social coexistence and human rights.

Resumen El comercio exterior de armas convencionales y material de doble uso es una actividad regulada y controlada por el Estado, imprescindible para prevenir desvíos indeseados y evitar un uso indebido por parte del destinatario de las armas. Por esta razón, atendiendo a la peligrosidad potencial que comporta la exportación de armamento, los Estados adoptan el sistema de licencia previa para autorizar su exportación. En el presente trabajo se explora la problemática general de la exportación de armas, subrayando las implicaciones que esta actividad comporta para la paz, la seguridad y la prevención de violaciones graves de los derechos humanos, para seguidamente examinar los límites normativos que la legislación supranacional ha impuesto a los Estados, muy en concreto el Tratado de Comercio de Armas, de 2 de abril de 2013, y la Posición Común de la Unión Europea 2008/944/PESC del Consejo, de 8 de diciembre de 2008, por la que se definen las normas comunes que rigen el control de las exportaciones de tecnología y equipos militares. Asimismo, se analizará el régimen de exportación de armas en España, el problema del secreto del expediente de exportación y las implicaciones que esta regulación puede tener para el Derecho Penal español, especialmente para el delito de contrabando o la prevaricación administrativa de funcionarios. Adicionalmente, el trabajo plantea la necesidad de valorar, de lege ferenda, la inclusión de nuevos tipos penales en el ámbito del control y seguimiento ex post una vez las armas han llegado al lugar de destino. La evitación del desvío indeseado hacia grupos criminales y la comprobación del uso final de las armas son deberes irrenunciables de los Estados y de las empresas del sector, teniendo en cuenta el potencial lesivo del armamento en la convivencia social y en los derechos humanos.

Abstract The war and violence that have prevailed in Ukraine since February 2022 have become a scourge for the population in this country. Civilian populations, men, women, and children have been the main victims of attacks inflicted by Russia. The situation has become more and more astonishing, with attacks ranging from bombings to residential areas to hospitals and maternity wards. That said, the question that arises in this regard is the lack of timely assistance to parturients and their babies, configuring an attack on fundamental rights - life and health. In this sense, to mitigate the damage caused in Ukraine by the Russian State, International Law emerges to protect the dignity and integrity of Ukrainian citizens. In addition to the essential work carried out by the UN, through UNHCR, UNICEF, as well as by the WHO and the NGO Doctors Without Borders, without devaluing the other entities that participate. Given the aforementioned, this article intends to respond to the violations committed by the Russian State in terms of the bombings carried out on Ukrainian medical infrastructure and how to act at an international level, to avoid more lives lost.

Resumo A guerra e a violência que imperam na Ucrânia desde fevereiro de 2022 têm-se tornado um flagelo para as populações que neste país se encontram. As populações civis, homens, mulheres e crianças têm sido as principais vítimas dos ataques infligidos pela Rússia. A situação tem-se tornado cada vez mais assombrosa, onde se verifica desde bombardeamentos realizados a zonas residenciais, até a hospitais e maternidades. Posto isto, a questão que se coloca quanto a este aspeto, é a falta de assistência atempada às parturientes e aos seus bebés, configurando-se num atentado aos direitos fundamentais - à vida e à saúde. Neste sentido, para mitigar os danos causados na Ucrânia pelo Estado Russo, surge o Direito Internacional como forma de proteger a dignidade e integridade dos cidadãos ucranianos. Acrescendo o trabalho imprescindível levado a cabo pela ONU, através da ACNUR, UNICEF, como também pela OMS e, pela ONG Médicos Sem Fronteiras, sem desvalorizar as restantes entidades que participam. Face ao mencionado, este artigo pretende responder às violações cometidas pelo Estado Russo a nível dos bombardeamentos realizados às infraestruturas médicas ucranianas e de que modo se pode atuar a nível internacional, de forma a evitar mais vidas perdidas.

Resumen El 17 de febrero de 2023, el Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja cumplió 160 años. Desde 1863, dicha organización ha trabajado, guiándose por los Principios de neutralidad, imparcialidad e independencia, ayudando a las personas afectadas por los conflictos armados y otras situaciones de violencia. Qué mejor forma de conmemorar el nacimiento de dicha organización humanitaria que a través del análisis de la película Henry Dunant: Du rouge sur la croix (Henry Dunant: Rojo en la Cruz). Si bien está basada en hechos reales como lo visto y vivido por Dunant en Castiglione, Italia, en la batalla de Solferino, que le da la idea para el nacimiento de lo que hoy denominamos derecho internacional humanitario y del Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja, lo cierto es que se permite licencias novelísticas respecto de ese pasaje de la vida de Dunant, del emblema y la “primera conferencia internacional” que le daría vida al Comité y al derecho humanitario.

Abstract On February 17 2023, the International Committee of the Red Cross turned 160. Since 1863, this organization has worked by following the principles of neutrality, impartiality and independence, helping people affected by armed conflicts and other violence-related situation. Then, there is no better way to commemorate its birth than by analyzing the film Henry Dunant: Du rouge sur la croix (Henry Dunant: Red on the Cross). Even though the film is based on real events as seen and experienced by Dunant in Castiglione, Italy, in the battle of Solferino, which provides him with the idea that gave rise to what we nowadays call international humanitarian law and of the International Committee of the Red Cross, it is necessary to keep in mind that this film takes poetic license regarding this part of Dunant’s life, the emblem and the “first international conference” which would then lead to the Committee and the development of humanitarian law.

Resumo Este artigo trata das implicações jurídicas, no Brasil, da ocupação tradicional da terra pelos indígenas Yanomami, tendo como marco inicial construção da Rodovia Perimetral Norte em 1973, o que correspondeu a um grande afluxo de não indígenas e conflitos fundiários. Procura-se demonstrar, analisando as Constituições brasileiras posteriores a 1967, as normas infraconstitucionais recepcionadas, os tratados internacionais e a jurisprudência interamericana, que a ordem jurídica no Brasil prevê a posse das terras indígenas, o usufruto de seus recursos naturais, a demarcação e a desintrusão. Contudo, o Estado viola sistematicamente esses direitos, causando eventualmente crises humanitárias. Esse grave fenômeno ocorreu duas vezes. Na Ditadura, especialmente de 1975 a 1990, e durante a crise da Democracia brasileira, a partir de 2014. Em ambos, os órgãos do sistema interamericano de direitos humanos foram provocados. Embora estejam bem desenvolvidos os direitos indígenas no Brasil, sua efetividade ainda é um desafio, em razão da oposição política de determinados grupos sociais, o que culmina, em períodos de maior fragilidade democrática, em crises humanitárias que são objeto de análise pela Comissão Interamericana de Direitos Humanos e pela Corte Interamericana de Direitos Humanos, que têm competência de agir face ao Brasil. jurídicas Yanomami 1973 fundiários Procurase Procura se demonstrar 1967 recepcionadas interamericana naturais desintrusão Contudo vezes Ditadura 197 1990 brasileira 2014 ambos provocados desafio sociais culmina democrática 196 19 199 201 1 20 2

Abstract This study evaluates the legal implications of the traditional occupation of land by the Yanomami people in Brazil, beginning from the construction of the highway BR- 210 (Rodovia Perimetral Norte) in 1973, which corresponded to a large influx of non-indigenous people and several land conflicts. We seek to show—by analyzing the Brazilian Constitutions after 1967, the infraconstitutional law upheld by the constitution, the international treaties, and the inter-American jurisprudence—that the legal order in Brazil provides for the possession of indigenous lands, the usufruct of their natural resources, land demarcation, and the removal of intruders. However, the State systematically violates these rights, occasionally causing humanitarian crises. This serious phenomenon occurred twice. During the Brazilian dictatorship (specially from 1975 to 1990) and the Brazilian democracy crisis (beginning in 2014). Both mobilized the bodies of the inter-American human rights system. Although Indigenous rights are well developed in Brazil, their effectiveness remains a challenge due to the political opposition of certain social groups, culminating in periods of greater democratic fragility, humanitarian crises analyzed by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, and by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, which has jurisdiction to respond to Brazil. BR 21 Rodovia Norte 1973 nonindigenous non conflicts showby show 1967 constitution treaties interAmerican inter American jurisprudencethat jurisprudence that lands resources demarcation intruders However twice specially 197 1990 2014. 2014 . 2014) system groups fragility InterAmerican Inter Rights 2 196 19 199 201 1 20

Resumo Este artículo trata de las implicaciones jurídicas, en Brasil, de la ocupación tradicional de la tierra por el pueblo indígena Yanomami, teniendo como punto de partida la construcción de la Rodovia Perimetral Norte en 1973, que se correspondió a una gran afluencia de población no indígena y a conflictos por la tierra. Se pretende demostrar, analizando las Constituciones brasileñas posteriores a 1967, las normas infraconstitucionales recibidas, los tratados internacionales y la jurisprudencia interamericana, que el ordenamiento jurídico en Brasil prevé la posesión de las tierras indígenas, el usufructo de sus recursos naturales, la demarcación y la des-intrusión. No obstante, el Estado viola sistemáticamente esos derechos, lo que acaba provocando crisis humanitarias. Ese grave fenómeno se ha producido en dos ocasiones. En la Dictadura, especialmente de 1975 a 1990, y durante la crisis de la Democracia brasileña, a partir de 2014. En ambos, los órganos del sistema interamericano de derechos humanos fueron provocados. Aunque los derechos indígenas están bien desarrollados en Brasil, su efectividad sigue siendo un reto, debido a la oposición política de ciertos grupos sociales, que culmina, en periodos de mayor fragilidad democrática, en crisis humanitarias que son analizadas por la Comisión Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos, que tienen jurisdicción para actuar frente a Brasil. jurídicas Yanomami 1973 demostrar 1967 recibidas interamericana naturales desintrusión. desintrusión des intrusión. intrusión des-intrusión obstante ocasiones Dictadura 197 1990 brasileña 2014 ambos provocados reto sociales culmina democrática 196 19 199 201 1 20 2

The transmission of cholera, a highly infectious disease, is closely linked to inadequate access to clean water and sanitation facilities, with resource-poor communities, including refugees, rural communities and temporary displacement camps particularly vulnerable to outbreaks. Any disruption in water and sanitation systems or a sudden surge in community size owing to displacement can spark a humanitarian and health crisis, elevating the risk of cholera transmission and possibly triggering a regional epidemic. Recently, Hammanskraal in Gauteng, South Africa, experienced such an epidemic. A multifaceted approach is essential to minimise fatalities and effectively manage healthcare services in such health emergencies. This approach includes early detection, rapid response to contain outbreaks, and the effective deployment of technical support, advocacy, resource mobilisation and partnerships at local, national, and international levels. This paper explores the responsibilities of individuals, healthcare workers, communities and governments in addressing epidemics. It also delves into the concept of collective responsibility with regard to climate change and cholera, as part of the multifaceted approach for cholera prevention and control. While economic development, equal access to safe drinking water, and adequate sanitation are necessary for cholera control, major challenges persist in achieving the fundamental right to a healthy environment in the long term. We also discuss these obstacles and conclude with practical suggestions and recommendations for future cholera prevention.