ABSTRACT. Part of the legal literature and jurisprudence have indicated that the Vienna Convention on the International Sale of Goods contains a general right of retention based on the interpretation of several provisions of the Convention, including Article 58 and Article 71. This work analyzes these articles to determine if they are cases of the right of retention, or rather they establish cases of exceptio non adimpleti contractus in its various modalities.

RESUMEN. Parte de la doctrina y la jurisprudencia han señalado que la Convención de Viena sobre compraventa internacional de mercaderías contempla un derecho de retención general a partir de la interpretación de varios artículos de la Convención, entre ellos, el artículo 58 y el artículo 71. El presente trabajo analiza estos artículos para determinar si realmente se trata de supuestos de derecho de retención o si, más bien, establecen supuestos de excepción de contrato no cumplido en sus diversas modalidades.

Abstract This article critically analyses the indigenous consultation process in Chile implemented after the ratification of ILO Convention 169 in 2008. Through the analysis of two cases and using an autoethnographic and documentary approach, it discusses how these processes, designed to guarantee the active participation of indigenous communities in decision-making that affects them, operate more as mechanisms for legitimising state policies and business projects, especially in extractive and environmental contexts. This research exposes the challenges and limitations of these processes in Chile, arguing that they fail to adequately comply with international standards of free, prior and informed consent, nor do they respect indigenous ontologies and cultural practices. The article concludes with the urgent need for legislative reforms to strengthen the representation and rights of indigenous communities within the Chilean governmental framework.

Resumen El presente artículo analiza críticamente el proceso de consulta indígena en Chile implementado tras la ratificación del Convenio 169 de la OIT en el año 2008. A través del análisis de dos casos y con un enfoque autoetnográfico y documental, se discute cómo estos procesos, diseñados para garantizar la participación activa de las comunidades indígenas en la toma de decisiones que les afectan, operan más como mecanismos de legitimación de políticas estatales y proyectos empresariales, especialmente en contextos extractivos y ambientales. Esta investigación, expone los desafíos y limitaciones de estos procesos en Chile, argumentando que no logran cumplir adecuadamente con los estándares internacionales de consentimiento libre, previo e informado, ni respetan las ontologías y prácticas culturales indígenas. El artículo concluye con la necesidad urgente de reformas legislativas que fortalezcan la representación y derechos de las comunidades indígenas dentro del marco gubernamental chileno.

Abstract This study examines the status of the application of the American Convention on Human Rights by the Brazilian judiciary, with special attention to the Court of Justice of the State of Río de Janeiro. The research aims to provide more detailed information on the behaviour of judges in cases involving human rights, specifically the American Convention on Human Rights. Through empirical data collected directly from the judgments selected for the sample, it was possible to trace details on the guarantee - or not - of such rights contained in this important international treaty. This analysis also made it possible to formulate some recommendations that, ultimately, seek to improve the view of this set of rights by the members of the TJ-RJ.

Resumen Este estudio examina el estado de la aplicación de la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos por el poder judicial brasileño, con especial atención al Tribunal de Justicia del Estado de Río de Janeiro. La investigación tiene como objetivo proporcionar información más detallada sobre el comportamiento de los jueces en los casos relacionados con los derechos humanos, específicamente la Convención Americana sobre Derechos Humanos. A través de datos empíricos recogidos directamente de los fallos seleccionados para la muestra, fue posible trazar detalles sobre la garantía - o no - de dichos derechos contenidos en este importante tratado internacional. Este análisis también permitió formular algunas recomendaciones que, en definitiva, buscan mejorar la visión de este conjunto de derechos por parte de los miembros del TJ-RJ.

Abstract One of the mechanisms for the deprivation of liberty is the involuntary psychiatric hospitalization, The Convention of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), has insisted on the prohibition of involuntary admissions due to disability or deficiency, real or perceived. Chile regulates these issues in the law 21.331 about mental health care. The purpose of this article is to confront the international human rights standards from the CRPD and the Law 21.331 on mental health, to conclude that, although the regulations are substantially close to the CRPD, it fails to incorporate all the standards and fails to comply with the international obligations contracted.

Resumen Uno de los mecanismos para la privación de la libertad, es la hospitalización psiquiátrica involuntaria. La Convención sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad (CDPD), ha insistido en la prohibición de las internaciones involuntarias por motivo de discapacidad o deficiencia. Chile, regula esta materia en la Ley 21.331 sobre Salud mental. El presente artículo tiene por objeto confrontar los estándares internacionales procedentes de la CDPD y la Ley 21.331 de salud mental, para de concluir que, si bien la normativa se acerca sustancialmente a la CDPD, no logra incorporar todos los estándares e incumple las obligaciones internacionales contraídas.

Abstract In Argentina, from the beginning of the 21st century onwards, it has been detected that the conservation policies deployed by the National Parks Administration have been characterized by creating numerous protected areas and extending existing ones. During these years two concurrent processes also took place. One of them, related to the adoption and consolidation of neo-extractivism as a productive model whose modalities plundered the ecosystem functions of ecoregions throughout the entire national territory. The remainder was associated with the commitments assumed by the country before the Convention on Biological Diversity through the Aichi Goals. Therefore, it is hypothesized that both processes conditioned the conservation policies of said organism during the period 2000-2022. It is concluded that these policies were reactive and compensatory when seeking to protect the relics of the ecoregions not eradicated by neo-extractivism. At the same time, they tried to comply with the international commitments assumed.

Resumen En Argentina, desde comienzos del siglo XXI, se ha detectado que las políticas de conservación desplegadas por la Administración de Parques Nacionales se han caracterizado por crear numerosas áreas protegidas y extender otras ya existentes. Durante estos años también tuvieron lugar dos procesos concurrentes. Uno de ellos, relacionado con la adopción y consolidación del neoextractivismo como modelo productivo, cuyas modalidades expoliaron las funciones ecosistémicas de las ecorregiones a lo largo de todo el territorio nacional. El restante, se asoció a los compromisos asumidos por el país ante el Convenio de la Diversidad Biológica mediante las Metas de Aichi. Por consiguiente, se plantea como hipótesis que ambos procesos condicionaron las políticas de conservación de dicho organismo durante el período 2000-2022. Se concluye que estas políticas resultaron reactivas y compensatorias al buscar proteger los relictos de las ecorregiones no erradicados por el neoextractivismo. A la vez, trataron de cumplir con los compromisos internacionales asumidos.

abstract The objective of this work is to analyze transformer-based machine translation models. It aims to test the feasibility of using trained models based on specialized corpus. For the training of such model, a parallel English-French corpus was built with seven texts related to the Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction. The translation results obtained by the trained model were compared with those produced by Google Translate. For the evaluation stage, sacreBLEU automatic evaluation and human evaluation methods were used. The outcome of the automatic evaluation of sentences produced by the trained model was, on average, higher than those generated by the non-trained model. The human evaluation of the sentences revealed that there were adequacy errors in the use of language specific to the subject matter of the 1980 Hague Convention both in sentences generated by the trained model and in sentences generated by the Google Translate model. transformerbased transformer EnglishFrench English French 2 198 Abduction stage used average nontrained non 19 1

Resumo O presente trabalho possui como objetivo a análise dos modelos de tradução automática baseados em Transformer. Em específico, a pesquisa visa ao teste da viabilidade do uso de modelos treinados a partir de corpus especializado. Para o treinamento do modelo, foi construído um corpus paralelo inglês-francês a partir de sete textos da Convenção de 25 de outubro de 1980 sobre os Aspectos Civis do Rapto Internacional de Crianças. Os resultados de tradução obtidos pelo modelo treinado foram comparados com aqueles produzidos pelo Google Tradutor. Para a etapa de avaliação foram utilizados os métodos de avaliação automática sacreBLEU e avaliação humana. Os resultados da avaliação automática de frases produzidas pelo modelo treinado foram, em média, mais positivos que aqueles gerados pelo modelo não treinado. A avaliação humana das frases revelou que houve erros de adequação no uso da linguagem específica à matéria da Convenção da Haia de 1980 tanto em frases geradas pelo modelo treinado, quanto em frases geradas pelo modelo do Google Tradutor. Transformer específico especializado inglêsfrancês inglês francês 2 198 Crianças Tradutor média 19 1

After the failure of the Kyoto Protocol, a new architecture of international climate governance gradually emerged in the Paris Agreement establishing a division of roles for climate governance: states, which are formal members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), set goals and incentives, while non-party actors’ action conditioned implementation. As the UNFCCC framework remained state-based, less attention has been given to how non-party actors interact with national governments to enable multilevel governance arrangements for implementing climate policies. This work contributes to filling this gap by investigating the unsuccessful Brazilian initiative to implement a monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV) system, part of the UNFCCC framework, led by the Federal Climate Articulation Group (NAFC, in Portuguese). The NAFC was a venue for subnational participation within the governance structures of federal climate policy, whereas non-state actors provided technical knowledge. We consider the MRV system to be a public policy instrument and non-party actors to be border agents supporting capacity building through the translation of technical issues into policy options. Based on qualitative analysis of documents and interviews, we found that such influence did not enable capacity building due to the limited decision-making power of federal agents, which led to the non-implementation of an MRV system. Protocol states UNFCCC, , (UNFCCC) incentives nonparty non party implementation statebased, statebased state based, based state-based policies monitoring reporting (MRV NAFC, (NAFC Portuguese. Portuguese . Portuguese) nonstate knowledge options interviews decisionmaking decision making nonimplementation (UNFCCC

In this short review, we address carbamates, a class of chemical compounds derived from carbamic acid, which have garnered attention as both valuable assets and potential hazards across diverse applications. Their stable structure, characterized by the R–O–CONH–R functional group, allows for various substituents, enabling their use in medicine, agriculture, and even as chemical warfare agents. In medicine, carbamates play a significant role as components of numerous medications approved by Food and Drug Administration. The stability and permeability properties of carbamates have led to the enhancement of various pharmacological compounds, aiding drug development. In agriculture, carbamates have been used as pesticides to manage pests and increase crop productivity. Despite their effectiveness, overuse and inadequate regulation have raised concerns about environmental contamination and health risks. In this review, we also seize the opportunity to present information to the readers about the framework of international agreements on toxic compounds, highlighting their potential misuse as chemical warfare agents and how they have been a reason of concern, with their high toxicity across various exposure pathways. The inclusion of certain carbamates in the Chemical Weapons Convention underscores their lethal nature. However, they lack comprehensive research, raising questions about their complete effects and potential countermeasures. review acid applications structure ROCONHR R O CONH group substituents medicine agriculture Administration development productivity effectiveness risks concern pathways nature However research countermeasures

ABSTRACT The social contract tradition’s promise of facilitating just interaction among large groups of strangers remains as salient as ever. Kant in particular recognised that economic activity imposes costs on large and unspecifiable groups of people who cannot be asked in advance for their consent; he concluded that in order to engage in economic activity while dealing ethically with everyone, we require the state and the rule of law to set out the norms under which we can engage in other-affecting activity like commerce. In response to the challenge of coordinating the welter of anonymous interactions that modern economic life consists in, contract theory offers the social conventions of money and law. However imperfectly these conventions operate in practice, people rely on them to orient themselves in the world. Carbon taxes have been touted by economists for decades as the most efficient way to send appropriate signals to people about their emissions behavior. The widely underappreciated fact that most fuel for international air travel remains untaxed—and is thus effectively subsidized relative to the rest of the economy—provides an especially vivid illustration of the necessity for appropriate social conventions to provide the conditions under which economic activity can be undertaken with less injustice. In this paper, I explain why people seeking to flourish together fairly in the imperfect world we share today ought to support a universal carbon tax with no exception for international aviation. The argument proceeds in four steps. First, I provide a free-standing analysis of emissions behavior at the individual moral level. Second, I offer a picture of ideal and non-ideal coordination based mostly on Kantian social contract theory. Third, I argue that in a non-ideal context, moral signals about right relation offer a coordinating fulcrum around which meaningful if only partly coordinated action is possible. Fourth, I apply these conclusions to the case of aviation exceptionalism, focusing especially on instances of incomplete, overlapping, partly coordinated climate actions. I conclude that these arguments together amount to a case for reversing the Chicago Convention and applying a universal carbon tax that does not exclude international flights, ending aviation exceptionalism.

RESUMEN La promesa de la tradición del contrato social de facilitar una interacción justa entre grandes grupos de desconocidos sigue siendo tan relevante como siempre. Kant, en particular, reconoció que la actividad económica impone costos a grandes y no especificables grupos de personas a quienes no se les puede pedir su consentimiento por adelantado; concluyó que para participar en la actividad económica de manera ética con todos, necesitamos el estado y el estado de derecho para establecer las normas bajo las cuales podemos participar en actividades que afectan a otros, como el comercio. En respuesta al desafío de coordinar el conjunto de interacciones anónimas que constituye la vida económica moderna, la teoría del contrato ofrece las convenciones sociales del dinero y la ley. Por más imperfectamente que estas convenciones operen en la práctica, la gente confía en ellas para orientarse en el mundo. Los economistas han promovido durante décadas los impuestos al carbono como la forma más eficiente de enviar señales apropiadas a las personas sobre su comportamiento de emisiones. El hecho ampliamente subestimado de que la mayor parte del combustible para los viajes aéreos internacionales permanece sin gravar—y, por lo tanto, efectivamente subsidiado en relación con el resto de la economía—proporciona una ilustración especialmente vívida de la necesidad de convenciones sociales apropiadas para proporcionar las condiciones bajo las cuales la actividad económica puede llevarse a cabo con menos injusticia.En este artículo, explico por qué las personas que buscan prosperar juntas de manera justa en el mundo imperfecto que compartimos hoy deberían apoyar un impuesto al carbono universal sin excepción para la aviación internacional. El argumento procede en cuatro pasos. Primero, proporciono un análisis independiente del comportamiento de las emisiones a nivel moral individual. Segundo, ofrezco una imagen de coordinación ideal y no ideal basada principalmente en la teoría del contrato social kantiana. Tercero, argumento que en un contexto no ideal, las señales morales sobre la relación correcta ofrecen un punto de apoyo de coordinación alrededor del cual es posible una acción significativa, aunque solo parcialmente coordinada. Cuarto, aplico estas conclusiones al caso del excepcionalismo de la aviación, centrándome especialmente en los casos de acciones climáticas incompletas, superpuestas y parcialmente coordinadas. Concluyo que estos argumentos juntos constituyen un caso para revertir la Convención de Chicago y aplicar un impuesto al carbono universal que no excluya los vuelos internacionales, poniendo fin al excepcionalismo de la aviación.

The lack of works for educational and cultural literacy purposes in their own languages threatens the cultural survival of many vulnerable minority and indigenous groups worldwide. Translation could satisfy related access needs. A strict reading of international copyright law, however, does not facilitate the translation of works into other languages. Yet, it is often forgotten that, in accordance with the integration rule of treaty interpretation, the Berne Convention, and other relevant international intellectual property instruments, would have to be read in the light of internationally protected linguistic human rights in education and for cultural literacy. This mechanism could go some way towards assisting the easier translation of (parts of) works for the stated purposes into other languages. The argument made in this article, however, is that a harmonious reading of existing international copyright law with international human rights law cannot go as far as to sufficiently resolve the access needs of vulnerable groups speaking an endangered language, insofar as translated texts are concerned. In fact, it is contended that the existing regulation of translation under international copyright law is so inimical to the survival of vulnerable groups and their languages that it must be held to promote cultural or linguistic genocide. For that reason, the relevant copyright rules must be considered to conflict with ius cogens, that is, peremptory norms of international law, and to be void in their application to neglected languages. The article makes suggestions as to how countries could design national copyright law regulating translation rights and limitations and exceptions in a way that facilitates translation generally, and into neglected languages specifically. These suggestions are based on a reappraisal of the true character of translation, which must be seen to be highly transformative in nature and resulting in the creation of autonomous new works.

This article investigates the extent to which the South African Legislature and the international community recognise the right to identity of a child born through embryo donation. A distinction is drawn between embryo donation, gamete donation and surrogacy. Thereafter, the article discusses the multiple aspects which the right to identity comprises, namely: personal, biological, family and siblingship identity. An assessment is made of how these various aspects are impacted by national and cross-border embryo donation arrangements. The Children's Act 38 of 2005, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996, the National Health Act 61 of 2003 and the Regulations Relating to Artificial Fertilisation of Persons, in addition to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) are critically examined to the extent that may be applicable to children born through embryo donation. The article concludes that neither the South African legislative framework, nor the CRC or the ACRWC explicitly upholds the child's right to identity.

In part 1 of this article the current level of protection of the right to identity both at the national and international levels were considered in the case of embryo donation. It was concluded that at a national level the National Health Act, its accompanying regulations and the Children's Act fail to protect this right. The constitutional provisions on children's rights are also unhelpful in providing the requisite level of protection. At an international level it was further found that neither the CRC nor the ACRWC explicitly uphold the child's right to identity in the case of embryo donation. In an attempt to address this defect, this article compares the legal protection provided for the right to identity of children born through embryo donation in Australia and New Zealand. A number of lessons can be drawn from this comparative analysis. At a national level the article submits that the birth certificate should indicate the child's true origins and in addition to a register which holds the particulars of the child's donor parents, a separate donor sibling register is also suggested. Legislative amendments are also suggested to Parliament. At an international level, the following recommendations are made: a new United Nations (UN) Convention which centres on Assisted Reproductive Technology, a General Comment drafted by the CRC Committee to cover specific issues and interests of children, ratification of a Convention by the Hague Conference, and an investigation into the concerns raised by international embryo donation to be carried out by the International Social Service Network should be accomplished. Further, the article concludes that an Africa-based instrument would not be as effective as a UN proposed solution, given the cultural and religious concerns in traditional African societies.

This article gives an overview of the jurisdiction of the proposed African Court of Justice and Human Rights (African Court) over the transnational crime of trafficking in hazardous wastes as provided for in Article 28 L of the Malabo Protocol. It asserts that Article 28 L ought to be considered as emancipatory in view of the factors which motivated its inclusion in the Protocol; and that it is a significant innovation not only for the African Union but for the field of international criminal justice as a whole. The article concludes that the criminalisation of trafficking in hazardous waste through the Malabo Protocol is necessary as Article 28 L will help to fill the gap created by the ineffectiveness of the domestic implementation of the Bamako Convention, and the potential ineffectiveness of the Basel Ban Amendment, which entered into force in December 2019.

The research reported in this article was centred on three research questions about the issue of ensuring that, in education and schooling, the principle of the best interests of the child is respected. The inauspicious treatment of children through the ages led the international community in the form of the United Nations to adopt its Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1989. The series of developments culminating in the adoption of the CRC led to the formulation of the following three research questions: (1) What motivated the United Nations to adopt its CRC, in particular its formulation of the notion of 'the best interests of the child'? (2) How did the notion of 'the best interests of the child' subsequently find expression in the 1996 Constitution of the Republic of South Africa and the South African jurisprudence following thereafter? (3) What perspectives does the Bible, as the Word of God, provide on the notion of 'the best interests of the child'? Interpretivism-constructivism was used in putting together the thesis developed in this article. Interpretivism was applied to the results of an initial literature study on the status of the child, followed by constructivism in construing the line of argumentation that follows. The second part of the article emerged after a critical analysis of the post-1994 legislation and jurisprudence in South Africa. The norm set by the CRC has been respected since the advent of the new political dispensation in South African legislation and subsequent jurisprudence. The Bible, as the Word of God, also provides perspectives regarding the notion of 'the best interests of the child', although it does not employ this phrase as such. It teaches that since children are human beings and created in the image of God, and also because they are vulnerable, they have to be treated with loving care, respect, sympathy, and empathy. CONTRIBUTION: The article sheds light on the way the concept 'best interests of the child' attained international acceptance and subsequently obtained application in the South African constitutional arena since 1994. It also creates a link between legal stipulations and biblical perspectives regarding the notion of 'the best interests of the child'.

Abstract The object of this legal-scientific article is focused on the exposure, updating and analysis of existing problems in the illicit/crime of money laundering/laundering. This fourth approach - in fifth notes - of the sanctioning regime of the legislation that prevents the laundering of advantages, such as money - laundering of advantages such as v.g. capitals -, in Portugal and in the EU, does not escape the previous ones: it is not possible to forget the duty of formation. Still so despised in Portugal-EU, as well as in several countries around the world. It is necessary to continue to add to the prevention of laundering of advantages, such as capital, the criminal offenses and the administrative offenses contained in the Laundering Law. And this is, once again, due to a problem in continental European legislation: its size is increasing more and more as if it were possible to legislate everything. We had already mentioned this in our last publications and we have strengthened it again. It is urgent here, by the way, to make a note to the Resolution of the Council of Ministers nº 69/2022, of 9/8.10 Now implementing the objectives and methodology. As mentioned before, the objectives continue to be renewedly focused on preserving confidence in the “lawful, i.e. fair, origin of certain facts”. This is approached always considering the perspective of a democratic society, as stipulated in the ECHR-European Convention on Human Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These are essential assumptions that define a Rule of Law, characterized by being democratic, social, free and true. In this environment, without neglecting the protection of “public peace” and the “realization of justice”, the principle of legality that is enshrined in the Constitution, as well as in the Portuguese criminal code, is also taken into account. This principle is reflected in the corresponding section covering the current criminalization in Portugal of the crime of “laundering”. It is worth mentioning that this legislation was modified again a few months ago. Criminalization, therefore, as we have also published in the past, protects a legal asset with several faces. Insistently, the methodology to be followed goes towards a certain maximum dogmatic and doctrinal comparative investigation, based on previous research, investigations and publications (some previous absences are added), legal (also new in the EU and Portugal), but equally, although brevitatis causa, jurisprudence, which we can analyze on the matter, such as, for example, in countries like Portugal and throughout the EU, which is made up of 27 countries.

Resumo O objecto deste artigo jurídico-científico está concentrado na exposição, actualização e análise problemática existente no ilícito/crime de branqueamento/lavagem. Esta quarta abordagem - numas quintas notas - do regime sancionatório da legislação que previne a lavagem de vantagens, como por exemplo, dinheiro - branqueamento de vantagens como v.g. capitais -, em Portugal e na UE, não foge às anteriores: não é possível esquecer o dever de formação. Ainda tão desprezado em Portugal-UE, bem como em diversos países do mundo. É preciso continuar a somar à prevenção do branqueamento de vantagens, como capitais, os ilícitos criminais e os ilícitos contraordenacionais que constam da Lei do Branqueamento. E isto é, mais uma vez, devido a um problema na legislação continental europeia: o seu tamanho está a aumentar cada vez mais como se fosse possível tudo legislar. Já tínhamos referido isso nas nossas últimas publicações e voltamos a fortalecer. Urge aqui, aliás, fazer uma nota à Resolução do Conselho de Ministros nº 69/2022, de 9/85. Concretizando agora os objectivos e a metodologia. Conforme mencionado antes, os objetivos continuam a ser focalizados de forma renovada na preservação da confiança na «origem lícita, i.e. justa, de certos factos». Isso é abordado considerando sempre a perspetiva de uma sociedade democrática, conforme estipulado na CEDH-Convenção Europeia dos Direitos Humanos e na Declaração Universal dos Direitos Humanos. Estes são pressupostos essenciais que definem um Estado de Direito, caracterizado por ser democrático, social, livre e verdadeiro. Neste ambiente, sem negligenciar a protecção da «paz pública» e da «realização da justiça», também se leva em consideração o princípio da legalidade que está consagrado na Constituição, bem como no código penal português. Esse princípio está reflectido na secção correspondente que abrange a actual criminalização em Portugal do crime de «branqueamento». Vale ressaltar que essa legislação foi de novo modificada há poucos meses6. Criminalização, por conseguinte, como igualmente já publicámos no passado, que tutela um bem jurídico com várias faces. De forma insistente, a metodologia a ser seguida vai em direcção duma certa investigação comparativa máxime dogmática e doutrinal, com base em pesquisas, investigações e publicações anteriores (acrescenta-se algumas ausências anteriores)7, legal (com novidade também na UE e Portugal)8, mas igualmente, ainda que brevitatis causa, jurisprudencial9, que podemos analisar sobre a matéria, como v.g., em países como Portugal e em toda a UE, a qual é constituída por 27 países.