This article documents and analyses the South African Republic (ZAR)'s participation in the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle. Celebrating a century of the French Revolution and industrial development, the ZAR's presence as an official exhibitor served as an information hub for furthering commercial and diplomatic interests in South Africa in an increasingly Anglo-German-Portuguese dominated imperial sphere. Initiated and coordinated by the French Consulate in Pretoria as a timely opportunity to alleviate the industrial uncertainties faced by Johannesburg's mining complex, the ZAR's participation as part of the Colonial Exhibition served as a propaganda tool for settler colonialism and the subjugation of non-Western societies. Situated among dehumanising 'ethnographic villages', the ZAR's pavilion supported France's vision of republicanism, industrialisation and racialisation at the height of the Scramble for Africa. Viewing the 1889 Paris Exposition Universelle as a major trade and information hub for industry, ethnography and imperial politics, this article analyses the ZAR's diplomatic attempt to portray itself as a prosperous settler republic aspiring to become the world leader in the goldmining industry. As an important feature of the exhibition, the ZAR was presented as a French republican partner and symbol of colonial collaboration between a European settler society and African economies.

Hierdie artikel dokumenteer en ontleed die Suid-Afrikaanse Republiek (ZAR) se deelname aan die 1889 Parys Exposition Universelle. Ter viering van 'n eeu van die Franse Rewolusie en industriële ontwikkeling, het die ZAR se teenwoordigheid as 'n amptelike uitstaller gedien as 'n inligtingsentrum vir die bevordering van kommersiële en diplomatieke belange in Suid-Afrika in 'n toenemend Anglo-Duits-Portugees gedomineerde imperiale sfeer. Geïnisieer en gekoördineer deur die Franse konsulaat in Pretoria as 'n tydige geleentheid om die industriële onsekerhede te verlig wat Johannesburg se mynbedryf teëgekom het, het die ZAR se deelname in die Koloniale Uitstalling gedien as 'n propaganda-instrument vir setlaar-kolonialisme en die onderwerping van nie-Westerse samelewings. Die ZAR se posisie, geleë tussen ontmenslikende 'etnografiese dorpies', het Frankryk se visie van republikanisme, industrialisasie en rasse-onderskeid tydens die hoogbloei van die 'Stormloop vir Afrika' ondersteun. Met die beskouing van die 1889 Parys Exposition Universelle as 'n belangrike handels- en inligtingsentrum vir nywerheid, etnografie en imperiale politiek, ontleed hierdie artikel die ZAR se diplomatieke poging om homself uit te beeld as 'n welvarende setlaarsrepubliek wat daarna gestreef het om die wêreldleier in die goudbedryf te word. As 'n belangrike deelnemer aan die Koloniale Uitstalling, is die ZAR uitgebeeld as 'n Franse republikeinse vennoot en simbool van koloniale medewerking tussen 'n Europese setlaarsgemeenskap en Afrika ekonomieë.

SIGNIFICANCE: The topic of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) became significant in South Africa from 2017, through advocacy, amongst others, by the University of Johannesburg and subsequently through the appointment of the Presidential Commission on 4IR. Preceding industrial revolutions each focused on a single technology; 4IR, however, speaks to a confluence of technologies and a synergy of computing, data, and communications technology, with artificial intelligence rapidly redefining the world of work. Conceptual and geopolitical challenges and potential negative societal implications notwithstanding, we argue that the 4IR paradigm shift is critical to South Africa and to realising the Sustainable Development Goals.

SIGNIFICANCE: Moll, Marwala, and Ntlatlapa highlight salient criticisms of terminologies and definitional uncertainties associated with the term 'Fourth Industrial Revolution' (4IR). Scientific research on technological change seems to suggest a need for theoretical synthesis to address a failure of 4IR notions to consider the central role of a revolution in the scientific/knowledge creation process itself - that is seemingly a causal driver of current technological and societal changes. The term 'Fifth Industrial Revolution' might helpfully be used to differentiate 4IR debates from those deriving from revolutionary changes in science itself that may underlie our current trajectory of technological change.

Abstract: My training in the field of languages - musical, visual, and verbal - was always marked by attention to the materiality of languages themselves and to the means how they are transmitted to allow their communicative functions. Since the phonatory system, installed in the body itself, these means constitute technologies that have evolved over the centuries, bringing with them new forms of languages, such as the different forms of writing, the Gutenberg galaxy and, from the 19th century onwards, the industrial, electronic, and digital revolutions, each introducing technologies of their own. When language issues are placed in the focus of attention, what matters, since the industrial revolution, is the advent of cognitive technologies, such as photography, cinema, followed by electronic technologies - radio and television -, and, finally, the explosion of the digital revolution with all its new language forms and consequently of cognition, which today are distributed across the most different applications and platforms. The study of this evolution led me to postulate, based on the inspiration gathered from some authors, that human cognition is, since the first forms of writing, growing outside the human skull. Therefore, this is a proposal that concerns the exosomatization of human intelligence and cognition with all the contradictions that this brings. This article is dedicated to explaining this proposal with attention to the way it was developed in my work along the years. Abstract musical visual functions system itself centuries writing th onwards revolutions own matters photography cinema , finally platforms postulate authors skull Therefore brings years

Resumo: A formação da autora deste trabalho, no campo das linguagens - musicais, visuais e verbais - foi sempre marcada pela atenção à materialidade das próprias linguagens e aos meios pelos quais elas são transmitidas, para permitir suas funções comunicativas. Desde o aparelho fonador, instalado no próprio corpo, esses meios se constituem como tecnologias que foram evoluindo, através dos séculos, trazendo consigo novas formas de linguagem, tais como as distintas formas de escrita, a galáxia de Gutenberg e, do século 19 para cá, as revoluções industrial, eletrônica e digital, cada qual introduzindo tecnologias que lhes são próprias. Quando as questões de linguagem são colocadas no foco da atenção, o que importa, desde a revolução industrial, é o advento de tecnologias cognitivas, como são a fotografia, o cinema, seguidas das tecnologias eletrônicas - rádio e televisão - e, por fim, a explosão da revolução digital com todas as suas novas formas de linguagens e consequentemente de cognição, que hoje se distribuem pelos mais distintos aplicativos e plataformas. O estudo dessa evolução levou a autora a postular, a partir da inspiração colhida em alguns autores, que a cognição humana está, desde as primeiras formas de escrita, crescendo fora da caixa craniana. Portanto, uma proposta que diz respeito à exossomatização da inteligência e da cognição humana com todas as contradições que isso traz. Este artigo está dedicado à explicitação dessa proposta, com atenção ao modo como ela foi se desenvolvendo, no seu pensamento. Resumo trabalho musicais transmitidas comunicativas fonador corpo evoluindo séculos escrita 1 cá industrial importa cognitivas fotografia cinema fim plataformas postular autores craniana Portanto traz desenvolvendo pensamento

We are told by the powerful that we live In, or are about to live In, a Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR). Seemingly, this revolution Is about deep-seated, rapid, digitally powered techno-scientlfic change. It is the age of smart machines; It is a new Information technology (IT) revolution. However, In this article I suggest that examination of the history of technologies that are often held up to be proof of the 4IR, in fact shows that there is no contemporary technological revolution. The research methodology that I employ here Is conceptual analysis and afocused review of literature on the history of partlculartechnologies. An Industrial revolution, as Its three historical Instances have demonstrated, is the fundamental transformation of every aspect of industrial society, including Its geopolitical, cultural, macro-social, micro-social, economic and technological strata. It certainly entails a technological revolution, but it Is more than just that. In this article, I am not concerned with the broader ensemble of socio-economic changes - it seems increasingly clear that the 'brave new world' of the 4IR Is not really happening - but simply ask the question: is there currently a technological revolution? The answer seems to be that there is not. SIGNIFICANCE: The significance of this study is that it challenges the mainstream notion of technological innovation and change, associated with the 'Fourth Industrial Revolution'. It has implications for the way we think about technological and scientific revolutions

Scholars believe that we are amid one of the greatest cultural revolutions since the mass production of books in Gutenberg around 1450. The art of book printing, which originated in Central Europe, turned the world on its head within 10 years. The mass production of books resulted in most people in Europe learning to read in less than one generation, which has led to major changes in all areas of social life and has affected the lives of millions of people for over a hundred years. According to these same scholars, we currently find ourselves in a similar position through what is known as the AI (artificial intelligence). In this article, the researcher wants to come to a better understanding of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and AI as part of it and the way they challenge preachers. The central research question is: In our pursuit to speak the truth of Jesus Christ to the powerful economic elite, what are the challenges and opportunities that the 4IR is posing to preachers?

Resumen El desempleo y la informalidad en Costa Rica han estado en la discusión nacional, en cuanto a sus orígenes y consecuencias en el bienestar y desarrollo del país. Por ello, este artículo tiene como objetivo analizar si el país se está preparando, en términos educativos, ante la revolución tecnológica 4.0, en el marco del desempleo y la informalidad. Para ello se realizó una revisión de información secundaria como bases de datos oficiales e información bibliográfica de centros e institutos de referencia internacional para Latinoamérica. Se determinó que las nuevas formas de trabajo se deben acompañar de inversiones productivas que disminuyan el desempleo y la informalidad, para evitar la precariedad del empleo y frenar la exclusión social, bajo las brechas de productividad interna y externa que caracterizan la estructura productiva costarricense. Por otra parte, el éxito de la revolución 4.0 se debe vincular con el diseño y ejecución de políticas públicas que posibiliten transformaciones y el avanzar, de forma más eficiente, hacia un desarrollo inclusivo. La principal conclusión es que el país no cuenta con una estrategia dedicada que le permita adaptarse a los cambios que presenta la revolución 4.0, tenerla propiciaría un mayor dinamismo y oportunidades de desarrollo.

Abstract Unemployment and informal economy in Costa Rica have been discussed nationwide in terms of their origins, consequences, and their meaning for the well-being and development of the country. For this reason, this article aims to analyze whether the country is prepared to face the fourth industrial revolution within the framework of unemployment and informality. For this, a review of secondary sources such as official databases and bibliographic information from centers and institutes of international reference for Latin America was carried out. It was determined that new projects must be accompanied by productive investments that reduce unemployment and informality, avoid precarious employment, and stop the social exclusion that characterize the Costa Rican productive structure. On the other hand, the success of the fourth industrial revolution must be linked to the design and implementation of public policies that enable transformations and allow more efficient progress for inclusive development. The main conclusion is that the country does not have a dedicate strategy to adapt to the fourth industrial revolution's changes, which would enable high dynamism and development opportunities.

Resumo O desemprego e a informalidade na Costa Rica têm estado na discussão nacional sobre suas origens e consequências para o bem-estar e desenvolvimento do país. Portanto, este artigo tem como objetivo analisar se o país está se preparando, em termos educacionais, para a revolução tecnológica 4.0 no contexto do desemprego e da informalidade. Para isso, foi realizada uma revisão de informações secundárias, como bases de dados oficiais e informações bibliográficas de centros e institutos de referência internacional para a América Latina. Determinou-se que novas formas de trabalho devem ser acompanhadas de investimentos produtivos que reduzam o desemprego e a informalidade, evitando a precarização do trabalho e coibindo a exclusão social, sob as lacunas de produtividade interna e externa que caracterizam a estrutura produtiva costarriquenha. Por outro lado, o sucesso da revolução 4.0 deve estar atrelado ao desenho e execução de políticas públicas que possibilitem transformações propiciadoras de avanços mais eficientes no desenvolvimento inclusivo. A principal conclusão é que o país não tem uma estratégia dedicada que lhe permita adaptar-se às mudanças apresentadas pela revolução 4.0, o que possibilitaria maior dinamismo e oportunidades de desenvolvimento.

ABSTRACT In the 21st century, the development of digital technologies has had a decisive impact on the lives of citizens and the development of the economy, both nationally and internationally. Any modern state in its development experienced such a stage as they transition from a feudal society to an industrial one. This transition was carried out with the help of such a process as the "industrial revolution". Before the Fourth Industrial Revolution ("Industry 4.0"), three previous industrial revolutions led to a paradigm shift in manufacturing: mechanization with water and steam, mass production on assembly lines, and automation with information technology. Hence, the article attempts to discuss the key areas of industry transformation in the context of digitalization. The constant changes that are taking place in digital technologies represent one of its main characteristic features, and at the same time - a particular challenge and threat for the actors involved in it. This is mainly since the speed of development of digital technologies is increasing every year. More and more new products appear on the markets, the use of which was not previously possible by consumers and therefore is not subject to state control. The result of such processes is the "failures" of government regulation, whose correction can take many years.

RESUMEN En el siglo XXI, el desarrollo de las tecnologías digitales ha tenido un impacto decisivo en la vida de los ciudadanos y el desarrollo de la economía, tanto a nivel nacional como internacional. Cualquier estado moderno en su desarrollo experimentó tal etapa en la transición de una sociedad feudal a una industrial. Esta transición se llevó a cabo con la ayuda de un proceso como la "revolución industrial". Antes de la Cuarta Revolución Industrial ("Industria 4.0"), tres revoluciones industriales anteriores llevaron a un cambio de paradigma en la fabricación: mecanización con agua y vapor, producción en masa en líneas de montaje y automatización con tecnología de la información. Por lo tanto, el artículo intenta discutir las áreas clave de la transformación de la industria en el contexto de la digitalización. Los constantes cambios que se están produciendo en las tecnologías digitales representan una de sus principales características y, al mismo tiempo, un desafío y una amenaza particular para los actores involucrados en ella. Esto se debe principalmente a que la velocidad de desarrollo de las tecnologías digitales aumenta cada año. Cada vez aparecen más productos nuevos en los mercados, cuyo uso no era posible anteriormente por parte de los consumidores y, por lo tanto, no está sujeto al control estatal. El resultado de tales procesos son los "fallos" de la regulación gubernamental, cuya corrección puede llevar muchos años.

This research attends to David Bosch's (1995) last publication, Believing in the future: Towards a missiology of Western culture, and uses the work as a guide to formulate prospects for missiology as a theological discipline. Following Bosch, it uses an exploration of current events as a heuristic semiotic to discern the future of the church and to develop prospects for missiology. The 'post-world' we currently find ourselves in is described in the following terms: Post-COVID but pre-disaster; a Volatile, Unstable, Complex, and Ambiguous (VUCA) - a Post-stable world; Post-industrial revolutions - the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR); Post-stable climate. This is followed by the construction of missiology's prospects, missiology for the "new normal", suggesting several contours that may constitute the future of missiology. These include mission as theology and an expansion of the missio Dei; The ecclesiological contour; The ecological contour; The 4IR as a new founding narrative; Public theology and faithful presence - the worthy walk of the missional community; Anticipatory leadership; Missional spirituality; and The rediscovery of joy.

Industry 4.0 (I4.0) transformations in manufacturing industries impact technology, systems, and processes and extend to employees' competency requirements and, consequently, the preparation of graduates who will be ready to practice engineering with professional-level technical know-how and non-technical skills in I4.0. An I4.0 Competency Maturity Model (I4.0CMM) could be used as a tool to assess and guide the development of I4.0 and future skills requirements. This study applied the Delphi technique to evaluate the I4.0CMM's validity and utility, and the improvement thereof, using experts' opinions in two successive rounds. Purposeful sampling was employed to enroll 35 participants. Nineteen experts participated in round one survey, out of which 17 experts participate in round two of the survey. The study used a central tendency statistical tool (the mean) to evaluate expert consensus (mean score > 75%) and used means graphs to present the data. The study results demonstrated the sufficiency and relevance of an I4.0CMM to both academic and industry practitioners. The I4.0CMM could provide a comprehensive competency assessment framework that guides the development of graduate attributes that align with the I4.0 competency requirements in the industry.

RESUMO: Encontra-se em curso, sensivelmente no último meio século, a finalização de um processo de planetarização da Tecnologia, que, na ordem das causas, terá sido mais proximamente determinado pela Globalização político-económica urdida e imposta pelo Neoliberalismo e mais remotamente influenciado por sucessivas revoluções industriais, desde o século XVIII. Ele implicou uma transformação na própria natureza da Tecnologia, fazendo com que deixasse de ser mero meio (utensílio, ferramenta, instrumento) para determinados fins e se tivesse tornado num ambiente vital e existencial. Günther Anders foi um atento e perspicaz observador e crítico desse fenómeno, que, no seu jargão, concebeu como o do advento de um “Dispositivo universal” (Universalapparat). Dedica-se a primeira parte deste artigo à releitura da interpretação que esse filósofo alemão fez da sua suposta génese e evolução. Na segunda parte, analisa-se esse conceito. Explora-se, na terceira parte, duas consequências filosóficas maiores desse fenómeno.

ABSTRACT: More or less in the last half century, a process of planetarization of Technology is underway, which in the order of causes will have been more directly determined by the political-economic Globalization woven and imposed by the so-called Neoliberalism and more remotely influenced by successive industrial revolutions since the 18th century. It implied a transformation in the nature of Technology, ceasing to be a mere means (utensil, tool, instrument) for certain purposes and becoming a vital and existential environment. Günther Anders was an attentive, perceptive and critical observer of this phenomenon that, in his jargon, he conceived as the advent of a “Universal apparatus” (Universalapparat). I dedicate the first part of this article to reread the German philosopher’s interpretation of his supposed genesis and evolution. In the second part, I analyze this concept. In the third part, I explore two main philosophical consequences of this phenomenon.

The First and Second Industrial Revolutions created significant disruptions in the social life and economic activities of human societies globally. Traditionally, social work practice has had a strong "face-to-face" foundation. Emerging technologies in the Third and Fourth Industrial Revolutions such as computers, mobile technologies, big data, internet of things, artificial intelligence and virtual reality are now creating a potential disruption in the traditional practice of social work. The emergence of e-social work and social work informatics broadens the scope of practice of social work in the 21st century. This article will examine the implications for social work education.

Abstract. Global retrospective human/plant epidemiology analysis exhibits a reactive cognitive development influenced by casuistic phenomena. Epidemic outbreaks of XXI century evidenced regression of the population-based approach to risk prevention and erosion of Public Health model, successful between 1950-1970. After 19 pandemics and 200 historical outbreaks, neither WHO nor public or private institutions, have not consolidated sustainable preventive models. Urban expansion and agricultural colonialism during the Industrial Revolution accelerated pandemic processes such as Black Death (Yersinia pestis), Cholera (Vibrio cholerae), Potato Blight (Phythopthora infestans) or Coffee Rust (Hemileia vastatrix). These factors contributed to the conception and application of the contagion and prevention principles by Snow/1854 or de Bary/1857, in the hygienism of Proust/1873, and the sanitation of Marshall/1882, before the etiological principle developed by Pasteur/1862 and Koch/1882. The contemporary scientific revolutions strengthened the reductionist hospital vision, with emphasis on cure as a principle, and on health privatization as a business strategy. The central epidemiology paradigm’s population is limited to the individual-patient or plant-damage. The COVID-19 cases curve (‘epidemic wave’) is not inherent to preventive epidemiology, ‘flattening’ lacks infectious basis, ‘healthy distance’ or ‘confinement’ are not sustainable mitigation strategies. The immunological emphasis did not generate the expected individual protection and ‘herd immunity’. Instead, it exacerbated the pharmaceutical-mercantilized vaccine ‘race’ to new variants; geopolitical protectionism; and unequal distribution of immunologicals. The SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 pandemic evidenced the rational epidemiological framework deterioration; the absence of Surveillance Systems that articulate clinical detection and viral variants with community risks follow-up, enhanced with genomic and digital technology; the systematic failure of Public Health Systems; and the absence of a pansystemic model to integrate regional preventive models. Maximum case-fatality reduction from 15.2% in 2020 to 2.5 world average 2021, suggests an endemic transitional process. Worldwide reproduction rates R t > 1 are consistent with more transmissible variants, such as Delta and Omicron, as sublethal survival ability of the virus. The pandemic has not been successfully intervened and its momentum is determined by biological attributes inherent to SARS-CoV-2.

Resumen. El análisis retrospectivo mundial de la epidemiología humana/vegetal exhibe desarrollo cognitivo reactivo influenciado por fenómenos casuísticos. Brotes epidémicos del siglo XXI demuestran involución del enfoque poblacional de prevención de riesgos y erosión del modelo de Salud Pública, exitoso entre 1950-1970. Después de 19 pandemias y 200 brotes históricos, ni la OMS e instituciones públicas o privadas han consolidado modelos preventivos sustentables. La expansión urbana y el colonialismo agrícola durante la Revolución Industrial aceleró procesos pandémicos como la Peste Negra (Yersinia pestis), Cólera (Vibrio cholerae), Tizón de la Papa (Phythopthora infestans) o Roya del Café (Hemileia vastatrix). Éstas coadyuvaron en la concepción y aplicación de los principios contagio y prevención por Snow/1854 o de Bary/1857, en el higienismo de Proust/1873, y la sanitización de Marshall/1882, antes del principio etiológico desarrollado por Pasteur/1862 y Koch/1882. Las revoluciones científicas contemporáneas fortalecieron la visión reduccionista hospitalaria, o parcelaria, con énfasis en la curación como principio, y la privatización de la salud como estrategia de mercado. La población, paradigma central de la epidemiología, está limitada al individuo-paciente o planta-daño. La curva de casos COVID-19 (‘ola epidémica’) no es inherente a la epidemiología preventiva, su ‘aplanamiento’ carece de fundamento infeccioso, la ‘sana distancia’ o ‘confinamiento’ no son estrategias de mitigación sostenibles. El énfasis inmunológico, no generó la protección individual e ‘inmunidad de rebaño’ esperadas. En cambio, exacerbó la ‘carrera’ farmacéutica-mercantilizada de vacunas ante nuevas variantes; el proteccionismo geopolítico; y la inequitativa distribución de inmunológicos. La pandemia SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 evidenció el deterioro de un marco epidemiológico racional; ausencia de Sistemas de Vigilancia que articulen la detección clínica y de variantes virales con trazabilidad de riesgos comunitarios, potenciados con tecnología genómica y digital; la depauperación del Sistema Público de Salud; y la ausencia de un modelo pansistémico integrador de modelos regionales preventivos. Reducción de letalidad máxima de 15.2% en 2020, a 2.5 promedio mundial en 2021 sugiere un proceso transicional endémico. Tasas de reproducción mundial R t > 1 son congruentes con variantes más transmisibles, como Delta y Ómicron, como aptitud de sobrevivencia subletal del virus. La pandemia no se ha logrado intervenir exitosamente y su momentum está determinado por atributos biológicos inherentes al SARS-CoV-2.

Resumen Introducción: Internet vive una de las más grandes revoluciones de la historia denominada Internet de las cosas. En ella, tanto la epidemiología como la salud pública tienen gran potencial, ya que el nuevo mundo hiperconectado representará espacios de reinvención e innovación nunca antes imaginados en diversos aspectos del campo de la salud. Objetivo: Reflexionar sobre las posibilidades para la epidemiología y la salud pública ante el escenario de Internet de las cosas. Materiales y métodos: Revisión documental que incluyó textos físicos y bases de datos electrónicas. Resultados: Internet de las cosas representa para la epidemiología y la salud pública, una dimensión llena de oportunidades debido a las fuentes de datos masivos y a las tecnologías de la cuarta revolución industrial, aunque también nuevos desafíos, principalmente en cuanto a seguridad y privacidad de la información. Conclusiones: Ante la era de Internet de las cosas, para la salud en general y particularmente para la epidemiología y la salud pública, se abre la posibilidad múltiples fuentes de datos, muchas en tiempo real. Esto permitirá optimizar la perspectiva y la comprensión de numerosos eventos en salud, y con ello, lograr una atención en salud más proactiva y predictiva.

Abstract Introduction: Internet is living one of the greatest revolutions in history called Internet of things. Both epidemiology and public health have great potential in it since the new hyperconnected world will represent spaces for the reinvention and innovation never before imagined in various aspects of the health field. Objective: To reflect on the possibilities for epidemiology and public health in the scenario of the Internet of things. Materials and methods: Documentary review that included physical texts and electronic databases. Results: Internet of things represents for epidemiology and public health, a dimension full of opportunities due to the massive data sources and technologies of the fourth industrial revolution, but also new challenges, mainly in terms of security and privacy of information. Conclusions: The age of Internet of things has opened up the possibility of multiple data sources, many in real time, for epidemiology and public health. This will facilitate the optimization of the perspective and understanding of multiple health events and the achievement of more proactive and predictive health care.

RESUMO Este artigo argumenta que o Estado e o mercado são as principais instituições que regulam o capitalismo e, consequentemente, que a forma de organização econômica e política do capitalismo ou é desenvolvimentista ou é liberal. O artigo define Estado desenvolvimentista, o relaciona com a formação de uma coalizão de classe desenvolvimentista, e assinala que o capitalismo nasceu desenvolvimentista no mercantilismo, tornou-se liberal no século XIX e, depois de 1929, tornou-se novamente desenvolvimentista, mas agora democrático e social. Todas as revoluções industriais e capitalistas ocorreram no quadro do desenvolvimentismo, onde o Estado coordena o setor não competitivo da economia e os cinco preços macroeconômicos (que o mercado é incapaz de tornar “certos”), enquanto o mercado coordena o setor competitivo. Na década de 1970, uma crise abriu espaço para uma forma de capitalismo neoliberal ou financeiro-rentista. Desde a crise financeira global de 2008, a hegemonia neoliberal chegou ao fim e, a partir de então, estamos passando por um período de transição.

ABSTRACT This paper argues that the state and the market are the main institutions regulating capitalism, and, correspondingly, that the form of the economic and political coordination of capitalism will be either developmental or liberal. It defines the developmental state, relates it to the formation of a developmental class coalition, and notes that capitalism was born developmental in its mercantilist phase, turned liberal in the nineteenth century, and, after 1929, became once again developmental, but, now, democratic and progressive. All industrial and capitalist revolutions took place within the framework of developmentalism, whereby the state coordinates the non-competitive sector of the economy and the five macroeconomic prices (which the market is unable to make “right”), while the market coordinates the competitive sector. In the 1970s, a crisis opened the way for a short-lived and reactionary form of capitalism, neoliberalism or rentier-financier capitalism. Since the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, the neoliberal hegemony has come to an end, and we are now experiencing a period of transition.