En un Brasil donde los indicadores de empobrecimiento de la población siguen aumentando, es preocupante el hecho de que las personas gasten dinero para comprar cigarrillo en lugar de usarlo en acciones para fortalecer los aspectos del bienestar de sus vidas y la de sus familias. A partir de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud brasileña realizada en 2019, se estimó la influencia del gasto en cigarrillo industrializado en el presupuesto familiar de los hogares donde vivía al menos un fumador, estratificado por características sociodemográficas. Los fumadores brasileños destinaron alrededor del 8% del ingreso per cápita mensual promedio del hogar para la compra de cigarrillos industrializados. El porcentaje del gasto mensual promedio en cigarrillos alcanzó casi el 10% de este ingreso entre los fumadores de 15 a 24 años y fue aún mayor para los que tenían educación primaria incompleta (aproximadamente el 11%). En el Norte y Nordeste del país, ese gasto superó el 9%. El estado con un mayor compromiso con los ingresos del hogar fue Acre (el 13,6%), seguido por Alagoas (el 11,9%), Ceará, Pará y Tocantins (todos con aproximadamente el 11%). Por lo tanto, nuestros resultados resaltan la importancia de fortalecer la implementación de medidas efectivas para reducir la proporción de fumadores, tal como la política tributaria. Así, el dinero que actualmente las personas destinan a la compra de cigarrillos podría utilizarse en la atención de sus necesidades básicas, contribuyendo a promover la salud y la mejora de la calidad de vida. aumentando familias 2019 fumador sociodemográficas 8 industrializados 10 1 2 11%. 11 11% . 11%) país 9 9% 13,6%, 136 13,6% , 13 6 13,6%) 11,9%, 119 11,9% 11,9%) Ceará todos tanto tributaria Así básicas vida 201 13,6 11,9 20 13, 11,

In a country whose indicators of population impoverishment continue to increase, it is concerning that individuals spend money to buy cigarettes instead of using this resource in actions that strengthen aspects of the well-being of their lives and that of their families. Based on the Brazilian National Health Survey conducted in 2019, the influence of spending on manufactured cigarettes on the family budget in households with at least one smoker was estimated, stratified by sociodemographic characteristics. Brazilian smokers allocated around 8% of their average per capita monthly household income to the purchase of manufactured cigarettes. The percentage of average monthly expenditure on cigarettes reached almost 10% of this income among smokers aged 15 to 24 and was even higher for those with incomplete elementary education (approximately 11%). In the North and Northeast regions of the country, this expenditure exceeded 9%. The state with the most significant impact on household income was Acre (13.6%), followed by Alagoas (11.9%), Ceará, Pará, and Tocantins (all with approximately 11%). Our findings, therefore, reinforce the importance of strengthening the implementation of effective measures, such as tax policy, to reduce the proportion of smokers. Thus, the money that individuals currently allocate to purchase cigarettes can be used to meet their basic needs, contributing to the promotion of health and improving the quality of life. increase wellbeing well being families 2019 estimated characteristics 8 10 1 2 11%. 11 11% . 11%) 9 9% 13.6%, 136 13.6% , 13 6 (13.6%) 11.9%, 119 11.9% (11.9%) Ceará Pará all findings therefore measures policy Thus needs life 201 13.6 (13.6% 11.9 (11.9% 20 13. (13.6 11. (11.9 (13. (11. (13 (11 (1 (

Em um Brasil no qual os indicadores de empobrecimento da população seguem aumentando, preocupa o fato de que indivíduos gastem dinheiro para comprar cigarro em vez de usarem esse recurso em ações que fortaleçam aspectos do bem-estar de suas jornadas de vida e de suas famílias. Estimou-se, a partir da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde de 2019, a influência que o gasto com cigarro industrializado teve no orçamento familiar nos domicílios com pelo menos um fumante, estratificada por características sociodemográficas. Os fumantes brasileiros destinaram cerca de 8% do rendimento médio mensal domiciliar per capita para a compra de cigarros industrializados. O percentual do gasto médio mensal chegou a quase 10% desse rendimento, entre os fumantes de 15 a 24 anos, e foi ainda maior para aqueles com Ensino Fundamental incompleto (aproximadamente 11%). Nas regiões Norte e Nordeste do país, esse gasto ultrapassou os 9%. O estado com o maior comprometimento da renda domiciliar foi o Acre (13,6%), seguido por Alagoas (11,9%), Ceará, Pará e Tocantins (todos com aproximadamente 11%). Nossos achados reforçam, portanto, a importância de fortalecer a implementação de medidas efetivas de redução da proporção de fumantes, tal como a política tributária. Dessa forma, o dinheiro que atualmente é destinado pelos indivíduos à compra de cigarros poderá ser revertido no atendimento de suas necessidades básicas, contribuindo para a promoção da saúde e melhoria da qualidade de vida. aumentando bemestar bem estar famílias Estimouse, Estimouse Estimou se, se Estimou-se 2019 fumante sociodemográficas 8 industrializados 10 1 2 anos 11%. 11 11% . 11%) país 9 9% 13,6%, 136 13,6% , 13 6 (13,6%) 11,9%, 119 11,9% (11,9%) Ceará todos reforçam portanto tributária forma básicas 201 13,6 (13,6% 11,9 (11,9% 20 13, (13,6 11, (11,9 (13, (11, (13 (11 (1 (

En un Brasil donde los indicadores de empobrecimiento de la población siguen aumentando, es preocupante el hecho de que las personas gasten dinero para comprar cigarrillo en lugar de usarlo en acciones para fortalecer los aspectos del bienestar de sus vidas y la de sus familias. A partir de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud brasileña realizada en 2019, se estimó la influencia del gasto en cigarrillo industrializado en el presupuesto familiar de los hogares donde vivía al menos un fumador, estratificado por características sociodemográficas. Los fumadores brasileños destinaron alrededor del 8% del ingreso per cápita mensual promedio del hogar para la compra de cigarrillos industrializados. El porcentaje del gasto mensual promedio en cigarrillos alcanzó casi el 10% de este ingreso entre los fumadores de 15 a 24 años y fue aún mayor para los que tenían educación primaria incompleta (aproximadamente el 11%). En el Norte y Nordeste del país, ese gasto superó el 9%. El estado con un mayor compromiso con los ingresos del hogar fue Acre (el 13,6%), seguido por Alagoas (el 11,9%), Ceará, Pará y Tocantins (todos con aproximadamente el 11%). Por lo tanto, nuestros resultados resaltan la importancia de fortalecer la implementación de medidas efectivas para reducir la proporción de fumadores, tal como la política tributaria. Así, el dinero que actualmente las personas destinan a la compra de cigarrillos podría utilizarse en la atención de sus necesidades básicas, contribuyendo a promover la salud y la mejora de la calidad de vida.

Em um Brasil no qual os indicadores de empobrecimento da população seguem aumentando, preocupa o fato de que indivíduos gastem dinheiro para comprar cigarro em vez de usarem esse recurso em ações que fortaleçam aspectos do bem-estar de suas jornadas de vida e de suas famílias. Estimou-se, a partir da Pesquisa Nacional de Saúde de 2019, a influência que o gasto com cigarro industrializado teve no orçamento familiar nos domicílios com pelo menos um fumante, estratificada por características sociodemográficas. Os fumantes brasileiros destinaram cerca de 8% do rendimento médio mensal domiciliar per capita para a compra de cigarros industrializados. O percentual do gasto médio mensal chegou a quase 10% desse rendimento, entre os fumantes de 15 a 24 anos, e foi ainda maior para aqueles com Ensino Fundamental incompleto (aproximadamente 11%). Nas regiões Norte e Nordeste do país, esse gasto ultrapassou os 9%. O estado com o maior comprometimento da renda domiciliar foi o Acre (13,6%), seguido por Alagoas (11,9%), Ceará, Pará e Tocantins (todos com aproximadamente 11%). Nossos achados reforçam, portanto, a importância de fortalecer a implementação de medidas efetivas de redução da proporção de fumantes, tal como a política tributária. Dessa forma, o dinheiro que atualmente é destinado pelos indivíduos à compra de cigarros poderá ser revertido no atendimento de suas necessidades básicas, contribuindo para a promoção da saúde e melhoria da qualidade de vida.

In a country whose indicators of population impoverishment continue to increase, it is concerning that individuals spend money to buy cigarettes instead of using this resource in actions that strengthen aspects of the well-being of their lives and that of their families. Based on the Brazilian National Health Survey conducted in 2019, the influence of spending on manufactured cigarettes on the family budget in households with at least one smoker was estimated, stratified by sociodemographic characteristics. Brazilian smokers allocated around 8% of their average per capita monthly household income to the purchase of manufactured cigarettes. The percentage of average monthly expenditure on cigarettes reached almost 10% of this income among smokers aged 15 to 24 and was even higher for those with incomplete elementary education (approximately 11%). In the North and Northeast regions of the country, this expenditure exceeded 9%. The state with the most significant impact on household income was Acre (13.6%), followed by Alagoas (11.9%), Ceará, Pará, and Tocantins (all with approximately 11%). Our findings, therefore, reinforce the importance of strengthening the implementation of effective measures, such as tax policy, to reduce the proportion of smokers. Thus, the money that individuals currently allocate to purchase cigarettes can be used to meet their basic needs, contributing to the promotion of health and improving the quality of life.

Abstract The objective of this study is to analyze the patterns of Brazilian household consumption based on the gender and race of the head of the household. Depending on who is responsible for the family, more or less is spent on certain goods and services, not only due to individual preferences, but also due to different perceptions about priorities within the family itself. Regarding gender, the literature emphasizes that, for women, the greatest burden of spending is on the well-being of their children, and, in terms of race, there is still an incipient discussion about spending directed to identity issues, but it draws attention that a large part of the expenses be directed towards what is necessary to survive, given the worst living conditions of black and brown people in Brazilian society. To understand these differences in the consumption pattern of families whose heads are men or women, with different colors/races, this article analyzes the determinants of family consumption categories separately for each of these groups. To do so, we estimated a simultaneous demand system for the six main aggregate consumption categories (housing, transportation, food, health, education, and other expenses). The analysis was done with the 2017-2018 Household Budget Survey, by National Statistical Bureau. Our results suggest that women spend more on housing than men, while men invest more resources in transportation expenses than women. As for consumption patterns by race, the results suggest that in food expenses, black households spend more than white, regardless of the gender of the household head. In health and education expenses, white household heads spend more than black, and, about health, white women tend to spend more than men. Income, education, age, and children are important factors that may explain differences in these results. services preferences itself wellbeing well being issues survive society colorsraces colors races colors/races groups so housing, (housing expenses. . expenses) 20172018 2017 2018 2017-201 Survey Bureau Income age 2017201 201 2017-20 201720 20 2017-2 20172 2 2017-

Resumo O objetivo deste trabalho é investigar o padrão de consumo das famílias brasileiras com ênfase no gênero e na raça do responsável da família. A depender do responsável pela família, gasta-se mais ou menos em determinados bens e serviços, não somente devido às preferências individuais, mas igualmente devido às percepções diversas sobre prioridades dentro da própria família. No que tange ao gênero, a literatura enfatiza que, para as mulheres, o maior peso dos gastos é no bem-estar de filhos, e, em termos de raça, há ainda uma discussão incipiente sobre gastos direcionados a questões identitárias, mas chama a atenção que grande parte dos gastos é dedicado à sobrevivência, dadas as piores condições de vida de pretos e pardos na sociedade brasileira. Para entender estas diferenças sobre o padrão de consumo de famílias cujos responsáveis são homens ou mulheres, com distintas cores/raças, este artigo analisa os determinantes das categorias de consumo das famílias separadamente para cada um destes grupos. Para tanto, foi estimado um sistema de demanda de forma simultânea para seis categorias agregadas de consumo (alimentação, habitação, transporte, saúde, educação e outras despesas). A análise foi feita com a Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares de 2017-2018. Os resultados mostram que as mulheres gastam mais em habitação do que os homens, enquanto estes investem seus recursos mais nas despesas de transporte. Os gastos com alimentação são maiores entre os negros do que brancos, independente do sexo da pessoa de referência. Nas despesas com saúde e educação, brancos gastam mais do que negros, sendo que, com relação à saúde, mulheres brancas tendem a gastar mais do que homens. Renda, educação, idade e filhos são importantes fatores que podem explicar diferenças destes resultados. família gastase gasta se serviços individuais bemestar bem estar identitárias sobrevivência brasileira coresraças cores raças cores/raças grupos tanto alimentação, (alimentação transporte despesas. . despesas) 20172018. 20172018 2017 2018. 2018 2017-2018 referência Renda 2017201 201 2017-201 201720 20 2017-20 20172 2 2017-2 2017-

Summary Objective: Uruguay has a comprehensive tobacco control policy; two decades after its implementation, smoking continues to be a public health problem, the leading cause of preventable death, and a risk factor for chronic diseases. We systematized the available information on policies, consumption, prices, and tobacco taxes, with the aim of detecting vulnerable groups that should be considered when focusing policies, as well as identifying which ones need to be deepened. Materials and methods: Descriptive analysis of drug consumption surveys in households and middle school students, household surveys, household income and expenditure surveys, and administrative records of legal consumption. Estimation of gaps between reported consumption and legal sales as an approximation to smuggling. Results: Between 2001 and 2021, real taxes increased by 123% and the real price of a pack of cigarettes by 84%, with 65% of the price corresponding to taxes. Youth consumption dropped by 72%, while the age at which they start smoking increased, and adult consumption dropped by 33%. The groups that have had smaller reductions than the average are women, residents of rural areas, and those of lower socioeconomic status. The gap analysis shows that the penetration of illicit trade has decreased. Conclusions: Taxes should be increased to reach the WHO’s minimum recommendation that at least 75% of the price of a pack corresponds to taxes, while tobacco treatment programs and the implementation of the protocol for the elimination of illicit trade should be strengthened and focused.

Resumen Objetivo: Uruguay tiene una política de control del tabaco integral; dos décadas después de iniciada, el tabaquismo sigue siendo un problema de salud pública, primera causa de muerte prevenible y un factor de riesgo de enfermedades crónicas. Sistematizamos la información disponible sobre políticas, consumo, precios e impuestos al tabaco, con el objetivo de detectar grupos vulnerables que deben ser considerados al focalizar políticas, así como identificar cuáles deben ser profundizadas. Materiales y métodos: Análisis descriptivo de encuestas de consumo de drogas en hogares y en estudiantes de enseñanza media, encuestas de hogares, encuestas gastos e ingresos de los hogares y de registros administrativos de consumo lícito. Estimación de brechas entre consumo reportado y ventas de origen legal como aproximación al contrabando. Resultados: Entre 2001 y 2021, los impuestos reales crecieron un 123% y el precio real de la cajilla de cigarrillos un 84%, correspondiendo el 65% del precio a impuestos. El consumo en jóvenes cayó un 72%, a la vez que ha aumentado la edad en la que empiezan a fumar, mientras que en los adultos cayó un 33%. Los grupos que han tenido menores reducciones que el promedio son: mujeres, habitantes del interior del país y los de menor nivel socioeconómico. El análisis de brechas muestra que la penetración del comercio ilícito ha disminuido. Conclusiones: Deben aumentarse los impuestos para alcanzar la recomendación mínima de la OMS de que al menos el 75% del precio de la cajilla corresponda a impuestos, a la vez que fortalecerse y focalizarse programas de tratamiento del tabaquismo y el cumplimiento del protocolo para la eliminación del comercio ilícito.

Resumo Objetivo: O Uruguai possui uma política de controle do tabaco abrangente; duas décadas após a sua implementação, o tabagismo continua a ser um problema de saúde pública, a principal causa de morte evitável e um fator de risco para doenças crônicas. Sistematizamos as informações disponíveis sobre políticas, consumo, preços e impostos sobre o tabaco, com o objetivo de detectar grupos vulneráveis que devem ser considerados ao focar políticas, bem como identificar quais precisam ser aprofundadas. Materiais e métodos: Análise descritiva de pesquisas de consumo de drogas em domicílios e em estudantes do ensino médio, pesquisas domiciliares, pesquisas de despesas e receitas domiciliares e registros administrativos de consumo lícito. Estimativa de lacunas entre o consumo reportado e as vendas legais como uma aproximação ao contrabando. Resultados: Entre 2001 e 2021, os impostos reais aumentaram 123% e o preço real de um maço de cigarros aumentou 84%, correspondendo 65% do preço a impostos. O consumo entre os jovens caiu 72%, enquanto a idade em que começam a fumar aumentou, e o consumo entre os adultos caiu 33%. Os grupos que tiveram menores reduções do que a média são: mulheres, residentes de áreas rurais e aqueles de menor nível socioeconômico. A análise das lacunas mostra que a penetração do comércio ilícito diminuiu. Conclusões: Os impostos devem ser aumentados para alcançar a recomendação mínima da OMS de que pelo menos 75% do preço de um maço corresponda a impostos, enquanto os programas de tratamento do tabagismo e a implementação do protocolo para a eliminação do comércio ilícito devem ser fortalecidos e focados.

Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es explorar, mediante dos modelos de regresión logística multinominal, los factores que inciden en la pobreza multidimensional de las personas adultas mayores en México y en particular analizar cómo difieren entre mujeres y hombres. La fuente de información es la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares 2020. Los resultados muestran la relevancia de analizar la pobreza desde un enfoque multidimensional, ya que las distintas categorías de pobreza pueden tener disimilitudes en sus determinantes. Igualmente arrojan algunas diferencias notables entre mujeres y hombres, en un contexto de feminización de la vejez. Las odds ratio del modelo econométrico muestran que ser jefe de hogar incrementa las razones de probabilidad para las mujeres y las reduce para los hombres; hablar lengua indígena y vivir en una localidad rural; aunque tienen el mismo efecto positivo para ambos, el incremento es mayor para las mujeres. Contar con red económica tiene un efecto inverso en todos los cuadrantes, con un efecto menor entre la población femenina.

Abstract The objective of this article is to explore, through two models of multinomial logistic regression, the factors that affect the multidimensional poverty among the elderly in Mexico and in particular to analyze how they differ between women and men. The source is the National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure 2020. Our econometric results show the relevance of analyzing poverty from a multidimensional approach, since we find noteworthy dissimilarities among the determinants by poverty categories. Moreover, the gender approach throws differences between women and men, in a context of old age feminization. Female household heading increases the odds ratio while reducing them for men. Speaking an indigenous language and living in a rural location, although with positive effect for both, the probability increase is greater for women. Lastly access to economic networks has an inverse effect in all categories, with a smaller effect among the female population.

Abstract The objective of this research is to estimate and decompose the wage gap between indigenous and non-indigenous workers by region in Mexico, to examine whether there are regional differences in the existing wage inequality that a priori affects the indigenous population and whether these differences can be attributed to the job profile of this group or by systematic labor discrimination against them. Using the data from the 2018 National Household Expenditure Revenue Survey (ENIGH-N) and the Oaxaca- Blinder decomposition, it was found that indigenous workers face a wage gap in all regions of the county. But, this gap is more pronounced in the center and south regions, where, on average, the associated component with labor discrimination has a percentage greater than 56. In contrast, in the north-central and northern regions of Mexico, the residual component is on average less than 33%, which suggests that the wage gap is explained by differences in productivity between groups.

Resumen El objetivo de esta investigación es estimar y descomponer la brecha salarial entre trabajadores indígenas y no indígenas por regiones en México, para examinar si existen diferencias regionales en la desigualdad salarial que a priori afecta a la población indígena y si estas, se atribuyen al perfil laboral de este grupo de trabajadores o a una discriminación laboral sistemática en su contra. Utilizando los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto de los Hogares de 2018 (ENIGH-N) y la descomposición de Oaxaca-Blinder (1973), se encontró que, en todas las regiones del país, los trabajadores indígenas enfrentan una brecha salarial. Pero, esta es más pronunciada en el centro y sur, en donde, en promedio, el componente asociado a la discriminación laboral tiene un peso mayor al 56%. En cambio, en el centro-norte y norte de México, el promedio del componente residual es menor 33%, lo que sugiere que la brecha salarial se explica por las diferencias grupales en la productividad.

Hierdie artikel fokus op die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste enjaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste van Orania in 2021. Met die oog hierop is Orania se sosio-ekonomiese opname, waarvan die veldwerk in 2021 afgehandel is en waarvan die resultate in 2022 gepubliseer is, tesaam met die besigheidsopname van 2022 ontleed. Die Orania Sakekamer reik koopbewyse uit wat bekend staan as die ora en wat op 'n een-tot-een grondslag gekoppel is aan die Suid-Afrikaanse rand. Die ora word afgekort deur middel van die simbool "φ". Ora-koepons sirkuleer as 'n wettige betaalmiddel in die dorp, teen φ1,00 gelyk aan R1,00. Aangesien inwoners van Orania verkies om bedrae in ora te benoem en nie die rand nie, word die navorsingsbevindings hier in ora gerapporteer. Die totale jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste van die inwoners van Orania in 2021 is op sowat φ300 miljoen beraam. Per capita jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste vir die 2 377 inwoners word dus op sowat φ125 000 beraam. Hierteenoor word die jaarlikse inkomste van huishoudings in Orania in 2021 op sowat φ200 miljoen beraam, wat heelwat laer is as die beraming vir jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste vir dieselfde tydperk. Hierdie verskil in ramings kan nie met bestaande opnamedata verklaar word nie. Die ramings van die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste en jaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste word gestaaf deur die data wat verkry is uit die Orania-besigheidsopname. Die omset van sake-ondernemings in Orania in 2021 word op φ281 950 000 beraam en sake-eienaars het gerapporteer dat 51 persent van hul omset afkomstig was vanuit inwoners van Orania. Daar is sekere opnamefoute in die data, terwyl bykomende inligting nodig is om die ramings te verbeter. Inligting oor die huishoudelike besparing en persoonlike inkomstebelasting wat betaal word, sal die ramings kan verbeter. Inligting oor die netto betaling van belasting op toegevoegde waarde (BTW) deur sake-ondernemings sal ook hiertoe bydra. Bykomende inligting is onder meer nodig om Orania se bruto geografiese produk te beraam. Die gevolgtrekking kan nogtans gemaak word dat die jaarlikse persoonlike inkomste en jaarlikse huishoudelike inkomste van Orania in 2021 tussen φ200 miljoen en φ300 miljoen beloop het. Die beraming laat 'n marge van 50 persent, wat statisties groot is, maar bied nietemin 'n maatstaf waarvolgens toekomstige bevindings oor dieselfde onderwerp met mekaar en met die bevindings uit die verlede vergelyk kan word. Daar moet ook tot die slotsom geraak word dat die groeivlak van Orania se persoonlike en huishoudelike inkomste sedert 1991, toe dit vir alle doeleindes op nul gestaan het, beduidend is.

Orania is situated on the southern bank of the Orange River in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. The closest towns are Hopetown, 43 kilometres to the north-west, Vanderkloof, 49 kilometers to the south-east, and Petrusville, 51 kilometers to the south-east. Orania is about 160 kilometres south of Kimberley. A unique aspect of Orania is that all inhabitants speak Afrikaans and are of the white population group. All business activities, education, social interaction and religious activities are conducted exclusively in Afrikaans. It is therefore described as an Afrikaner cultural enclave. Research on various aspects of Orania has been undertaken and published, but none to date has estimated the level of total economic activity in the town. This article addresses this gap in extant literature by focusing on the annual personal income and the annual household income of Orania in 2021, as based on data collected for the most recent sosio-economic and business surveys that had been completed for the town in December 2021 and early in 2022, respectively. At the time of these surveys, Orania'spopulation comprised 2 377 people, of which 1 635 were 20 years and older, and thus regarded as receiving of some sort of income. Simultaneously, Orania comprised 649 households and 220 businesses. The survey results are very complete, reporting data for 712 individuals of 20 years and older (43,5 per cent of the universum), 572 households (88,1 per cent of the universum) and all 220 businesses in Orania. Survey results with such a high response rate are uncommon. The Orania Sakekamer [chamber of commerce] issues vouchers linked on a one-to-one basis to the South African rand, known as the ora. The latter is abbreviated as φ and circulated as the legal tender in the town, at a rate of φ 1,00 equals to R1,00. Given the preference among Orania's inhabitants to refer to amounts in ora, rather than in rand, this article reports the research findings in ora, rather than in rand. Based on an analysis of the survey data, the total personal annual income of Orania's residents in 2021 was estimated at some φ 300 million. Per capita personal annual income for the 2 377 inhabitants was therefore estimated at some φ 125 000. This is about 20 per cent larger than South Africa's gross domestic product per capita of R102 982 in 2021. These results seem plausible, as Orania does not have an unempoyment problem, while South Africa's unemployment rate in 2021 exceeded 30 per cent. In contrast, the annual household income of households in Orania in 2021 was estimated to be some φ 200 million. This is considerably lower than the estimate for personal annual income for the same period. The difference in estimates cannot be explained in terms of the existing survey data. It can only be ascribed to differences in the interpretations of the questionnaires at the time of collecting the data. The estimates of annual personal income and annual household income show some correlation with the survey data obtained from the Orania business survey. Turnover of business enterprises in the town in 2021 is estimated at φ281 950 000, and business owners reported that 51 per cent of their turnover was generated by residents of Orania. There are some survey discrepancies as evidenced by the data, and additional information is needed to improve the estimates. Information on household savings and personal income tax paid will help improve the validity of the estimates. Information on net payment of value added tax (VAT) will also cause enhancement of their validity. In addition, more information is necessary to calculate Orania's gross geographic product. The conclusion must nonetheless be drawn that the annual personal income and annual household income of Orania in 2021 amounted to between φ200 million and φ300 million. The estimate leaves a margin of 50 percent, which is statistically considerable, while it nonetheless provides a benchmark for future comparison in research on the same subject. Finally, the fact that Orania'spersonal and household income grew to this level from virtually nothing in 1991 must be given its due: it is impressive.

Abstract Inequality in Mexico leads to a series of consequences that affect the quality of life in the states of the country and it is necessary to measure the impact that this variable has on the well-being, to generate better public mechanisms. The objective of this research is to analyze the effects of the relationship between inequality, income and the human development index, through the application of a panel data methodology, in the 32 states of the country from 2008 to 2018, using data from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey. The results show that there is an inverse correlation between the variables, therefore, the possible incidence of reducing inequality favors better levels of the human development index. In conclusion, the correct distribution of income contributes to improving health and education, that is, to improve the living standards.

Resumen La desigualdad en México genera una serie de consecuencias que afectan la calidad de vida en el país, de ahí que sea necesario medir su impacto para intentar ofrecer mejores mecanismos redistributivos. Por tanto, el objetivo de este trabajo es analizar, a través de la aplicación de una metodología de datos de panel y con base en la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, los efectos de la desigualdad del ingreso sobre el índice de desarrollo humano (IDH) en las 32 entidades federativas del país durante el periodo 2008-2018. Los resultados demuestran que existe una correlación inversa entre las variables, lo que indica que reducir la inequidad económica contribuye en la mejora de los niveles del índice de desarrollo humano. En conclusión, esta investigación demuestra que la correcta distribución del ingreso ayuda a incrementar la salud y la educación.

Resumo A desigualdade no México gera uma série de consequências que afetam a qualidade de vida no país, por isso é necessário medir seu impacto para tentar oferecer melhores mecanismos redistributivos. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho é analisar, por meio da aplicação de uma metodologia de dados em painel e com base na Pesquisa Nacional de Receitas e Despesas Familiares, os efeitos da desigualdade de renda sobre o índice de desenvolvimento (IDH) nos 32 estados do país durante o período 2008-2018. Os resultados mostram que existe uma correlação inversa entre as variáveis, o que indica que a redução da desigualdade econômica contribui para melhorar os níveis do índice de desenvolvimento humano. Em conclusão, esta pesquisa mostra que a correta distribuição de renda ajuda a aumentar a saúde e a educação.

Resumen Esta investigación evalúa el impacto del empleo informal sobre la tasa de ganancia salarial (rendimiento marginal) de los individuos que cuentan con Educación Superior (ES) en México en el marco de la contingencia sanitaria por COVID-19 en 2020, la cual obligó al cierre de un importante número de actividades económicas en el sector formal. La estimación de los rendimientos de la ES se lleva a cabo mediante el procedimiento sugerido por Heckman et al., (2001) y extendido por Mogstad et al., (2020) que incorpora múltiples variables instrumentales y por Pinamang-Acheampong et al., (2022) que trata la heterogeneidad no observada mediante un modelo de regresión de sustitución endógena. La información utilizada para las estimaciones emplea una muestra de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares (ENIGH) 2020. Se encontró evidencia empírica de que el mercado informal de trabajo tuvo un impacto negativo drástico en los salarios de los individuos que cuentan con ES.

Abstract This research assesses the impact of informal employment on the wage earning rate (marginal return) of individuals who have Higher Education (HE) in Mexico in the framework of the health contingency due to COVID-19 in 2020, which forced to the closure of a significant number of formal economic activities. HE returns estimation is carried out using the procedure suggested by Heckman et al., (2001) and extended by Mogstad et al., (2020) incorporating multiple instrumental variables and by Pinamang-Acheampong et al., (2022) treating unobserved heterogeneity using an endogenous switching regression model. The information employed for the estimates uses a sample from the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH, Spanish acronym for Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares) 2020. Empirical evidence is found that the informal labor market had a drastic negative impact on the wages of individuals with ES.

ABSTRACT Introduction: The remission induction treatment for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) has remained unchanged in the resource-limited setting in the Philippines. AML treatment consists of induction chemotherapy followed by high dose consolidation chemotherapy or allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. In the Philippines, the Filipino household bears the burden of health care cost of hospitalization expenditure. Insights into the treatment costs becomes an essential requirement as these guides the allocation of resources to scheme health programs. Method: This study involved a retrospective cohort analysis of AML patients who underwent treatment for AML. Review of the statements of account per admission per patient during treatment for remission induction, consolidation, relapsed and refractory disease and best supportive care from 2017 to 2019. Of the 251 eligible patients, 190 patients were included. Result: The mean healthcare expenditure for remission induction chemotherapy (Phase 1) was US $2, 504.78 (Php 125,239.29). While 3 to 4 cycles of consolidation chemotherapy cost an average of US $3,222.72 (Php 162,103.20). For patients who had relapsed and refractory disease, an additional mean cost of US $3,163.32 (Php 159,115.28) and US $2, 914.72 (Php 146,610.55) were incurred, respectively. The average cost of palliative care was US $1,687.00 (Php 84,856.59). Conclusion: The cost of chemotherapy and other therapeutics bear most of the weight of the direct healthcare cost. The cost of AML treatment represents a significant economic burden for patients and the institution. The cost increases as patients proceed through subsequent lines of treatment for induction failure. Existing subsidy for health insurance benefits could still be improved for appropriate source allocation of resources. Introduction (AML resourcelimited resource limited Philippines transplantation programs Method 201 2019 25 19 included Result Phase 1 2 $2 50478 504 78 504.7 Php 125,239.29. 12523929 125,239.29 . 125 239 29 125,239.29) 322272 222 72 $3,222.7 162,103.20. 16210320 162,103.20 162 103 20 162,103.20) 316332 163 32 $3,163.3 159,115.28 15911528 159 115 28 91472 914 914.7 146,610.55 14661055 146 610 55 incurred respectively 168700 687 00 $1,687.0 84,856.59. 8485659 84,856.59 84 856 59 84,856.59) Conclusion institution failure $ 5047 50 7 504. 1252392 125,239.2 12 23 32227 22 $3,222. 1621032 162,103.2 16 10 31633 $3,163. 159,115.2 1591152 15 11 9147 91 914. 146,610.5 1466105 14 61 5 16870 68 0 $1,687. 848565 84,856.5 8 85 125239 125,239. 3222 $3,222 162103 162,103. 3163 $3,163 159,115. 159115 9 146,610. 146610 6 1687 $1,687 84856 84,856. 12523 125,239 322 $3,22 16210 162,103 316 $3,16 159,115 15911 146,610 14661 168 $1,68 8485 84,856 1252 125,23 $3,2 1621 162,10 31 $3,1 159,11 1591 146,61 1466 $1,6 848 84,85 125,2 $3, 162,1 159,1 146,6 $1, 84,8 125, $3 162, 159, 146, $1 84,

Abstract This paper is based on Kaztman’s AVEO approach (assets, vulnerability and opportunity structure) and presents evidence on educational segmentation in Argentina using data from the National Household Expenditure Survey (2017-8). The educational segments are identified using a combination of two criteria: the magnitude of the household’s expenditure on education and the management (public or private) of the school the children attend. We present evidence that households in each segment differ not only in their socioeconomic characteristics but also in terms of their access to cultural goods and services, as well as in their participation in spheres of social interaction (work, health, security, transport, recreation). This can be interpreted as evidence of social fragmentation.

Resumen Se presenta evidencia de segmentación educativa en Argentina a partir de los datos de la Encuesta de Gastos de los Hogares (2017-8) sobre la base del enfoque AVEO (activos, vulnerabilidad y estructura de oportunidades) de Kaztman (2021). Se identifican los segmentos educativos mediante la combinación de dos criterios: la magnitud del gasto en educación de los hogares y el sector de gestión de los establecimientos educativos a los que asisten sus miembros escolarizados. Un análisis de las características de los hogares cuyos miembros asisten a cada segmento educativo muestra diferencias que trascienden la escala socioeconómica: se presenta evidencia de diferencias en el acceso a bienes y servicios culturales y en la participación en ámbitos de interacción social (laboral, salud, seguridad, transporte, esparcimiento), que abonan la hipótesis de la fragmentación social.

Resumen Este trabajo investiga si existe discriminación salarial hacia los trabajadores hombres migrantes internos en México. Para ello, se realiza un análisis de descomposición de Blinder-Oaxaca en la media y por decil de ingreso, utilizando la Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto de los Hogares (ENIGH) del 2020 y controlando por el problema de autoselección de los migrantes. Se encuentra que, aunque los migrantes internos reciben (en promedio) salarios 5.5% mayores que los trabajadores no migrantes, si recibieran salarios similares a los no migrantes de acuerdo con sus características observables y autoselección, los migrantes internos deberían recibir (en promedio) salarios 15.3% mayores que los no migrantes. También se encuentra que son los trabajadores migrantes más pobres y aquellos que llegan a las regiones centro y sur-sureste del país, los que registran mayores niveles de discriminación salarial. Dada la limitación de los datos, no es posible considerar el tiempo de migración, la asimilación de habilidades o la migración de retorno.

Abstract This paper investigates whether there is wage discrimination against internal migrant male workers in Mexico. For this, a decomposition analysis of Blinder-Oaxaca in the mean and by income decile is carried out, using the National Household Income and Expenditure Survey (ENIGH) of 2020 and controlling for the migrant self-selection problem. It is found that although internal migrants receive (on average) wages 5.5% higher than non-migrant workers, if they received wages similar to non-migrants according to their observable characteristics and self-selection, internal migrants should receive (on average) wages 15.3% higher than non-migrants. It is also found that the poorest migrant workers and those who migrated to the central and south-east regions of the country are the ones with the highest levels of wage discrimination. Given the data limitation, it is not possible to consider migration time, skills assimilation, or return migration.

Resumen Este documento explora la distribución del ingreso en México durante el periodo de 2008 a 2020. Para ello, la fuente de información principal es la Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso y Gasto de los Hogares (ENIGH), la cual fue ajustada mediante el Sistema de Cuentas Nacionales. Esta información expone un periodo de descenso de la participación de las remuneraciones al trabajo, acompañado de un notable aumento de las transferencias. Asimismo, se subraya la importancia del ajuste de las encuestas, en temas como la subestimación de los ingresos reportados en los deciles más altos en todo el periodo de estudio en la ENIGH, además de la tendencia divergente de la desigualdad con respecto a los datos con ajuste. Aunado a ello, aquí se muestra que el índice de Gini ha disminuido, en especial en los periodos de 2008 a 2010 y de 2018 a 2020. En este documento se observa que esta trayectoria está asociada al comportamiento del ingreso de los deciles altos, a la evolución de la política social y a las remesas.

Abstract This document explores income distribution in Mexico from 2008 to 2020. For this, the main source of information is the National Survey of Household Income and Expenditure (ENIGH), which was adjusted using the National Accounts System. This information exposes a period of decrease in the labor share of income, accompanied by a notable increase in transfers. Likewise, the importance of adjusted surveys is highlighted, in issues such as the underestimation of income reported in the highest deciles throughout the study period in the ENIGH, in addition to the divergent trends of inequality with respect to adjusted data. In addition, here it is shown that the Gini Index has decreased, especially in the periods from 2008 to 2010, and from 2018 to 2020. This document shows that this trajectory is associated with income behavior of the highest deciles, as well as the evolution of social policy and remittances.

Abstract Introduction: social or school factors influence the acquisition and selection of foods to be consumed. Objective: identifying the socioeconomic or school level that has the greatest weight in the acquisition of food in Mexican households. Methods: cross-sectional, retrospective and comparative study based on the database of the 2018 National Household Expenditure-Income Survey of Mexico. We worked with the national total of 73,274 Mexican households. The variables considered were: expenditure module of food and beverages, school grade of the head of the family and socioeconomic status to which the household belongs. For the statistical analysis, the following tests were used: linear regression analysis, as well as variance analysis, Snedecor's F test, post-hoc test and Schefé's confirmatory test. Results: socioeconomic status has a greater weight (p < 0.001) for food acquisition. Sugary drinks were the most widely acquired in all social and school levels. The lowest social level is the one who acquires the most cereals, fats, sugars and legumes, while for high school levels animal foods and processed meats are the ones most frequently acquired. Conclusion: the socioeconomic level has a great weight in the acquisition and variety of foods, although this does not mean that foods obtained are the healthiest. Therefore, public policies are urgently required in favor of nutritional education at all school levels, which promote the purchase of healthy foods and compete with commercial advertising strategies.

Resumen Introducción: los factores sociales o escolares influyen en la adquisición y selección de alimentos a consumir. Objetivo: identificar el nivel socioeconómico o escolar que tenga mayor peso en la adquisición de alimentos en hogares mexicanos. Métodos: estudio transversal, retrospectivo y comparativo a partir de la base de datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Ingreso-Gasto en Hogares de México de 2018. Se trabajó con el total nacional de 73.274 hogares mexicanos. Las variables consideradas fueron: módulo de gasto de alimentos y bebidas, grado escolar del jefe de familia y condición socioeconómica a la que pertenece el hogar. Para el análisis estadístico se utilizó análisis de regresión lineal, así como análisis de varianza, prueba F de Snedecor, prueba post-hoc y confirmatoria de Schefé. Resultados: el nivel socioeconómicao tiene un mayor peso (p < 0,001) para la adquisición de los alimentos. Las bebidas azucaradas fueron las de mayor adquisición en todos los niveles sociales y escolares. El nivel social más bajo es el que adquiere la mayor cantidad de cereales, grasas, azucares y leguminosas, mientras que en los niveles escolares altos son los alimentos de origen animal y carnes procesadas los más adquiridos. Conclusión: el nivel socioeconómico tiene mayor peso en la adquisición y variedad de los alimentos, aunque esto no quiere decir que por ello se obtengan los más saludables. Por lo tanto, se requiere urgentemente de políticas públicas en favor de una educación nutricional en todos los niveles escolares, que promueva la compra de alimentos saludables y que compita con las estrategias publicitarias comerciales.

Abstract This paper analyzes the impact of the 2016 Comprehensive Tariff Review of natural gas on Argentinian residential sector. To do this, we investigated the variations in expenditure on natural gas over total household expenditure and the consumption of said fuel between 2012-2013 and 2017-2018 at two territorial scales (national and provincial), using information from the National Household Expenditure Survey and ENARGAS. Results show notable increases in the incidence of natural gas expenditure on total expenditure and reductions in the average consumption of this vector at both scales.

Resumen Este trabajo analiza el impacto de la Revisión Tarifaria Integral del gas natural de 2016 sobre el sector residencial argentino, para ello, se indagó en las variaciones del gasto destinado al gas natural sobre el gasto total de los hogares y el consumo de dicho combustible entre 2012-2013 y 2017-2018 en dos escalas territoriales (nacional y provincial), se utilizó información proveniente de la Encuesta Nacional de Gastos de Hogares y del Enargas. Los resultados demuestran incrementos notorios en la incidencia del gasto en gas natural sobre el gasto total y reducciones en el consumo promedio de este vector en ambas escalas.