Abstract Companies incorporate sustainability clauses in commercial contracts with other business organizations, in order to implement long-term social responsibility in business operations. These provisions generally do not grant sufficient coercive power for their enforceability, and, furthermore, make reference to external third parties (stakeholders) who may be affected by the commercial operation. This study aims to determinate if it is possible to reinterpret the stipulation in favor of a third party and the opposability of contracts by third parties in Chilean contract law to provide effectiveness to sustainability clauses regarding those who are not party to the agreement but are benefited by their observance. Accordingly, the hypothesis of this research is that stakeholders, as third-party beneficiaries of contractual clauses incorporated in the field of corporate sustainability, may enforce them as this allows for the achievement of the contract's purpose or claim damages in the field of tort liability, as they are recognized a legitimate interest in CCS’ fulfillment.

Resumen Las empresas incorporan cláusulas de sostenibilidad en la contratación comercial con otras organizaciones empresariales, de forma de implementar la responsabilidad social de largo plazo en las operaciones de negocios. Estas estipulaciones no otorgan poder coercitivo suficiente para su exigibilidad y, además, hacen referencia a terceros ajenos (stakeholders) que se pueden ver afectados por la operación mercantil. Este trabajo tiene por objetivo reinterpretar la estipulación a favor de un tercero y la oponibilidad del contrato a las partes por terceros para dotar de eficacia a las cláusulas sostenibles respecto de quienes no son parte del acuerdo, pero se ven favorecidos por su observancia. Conforme con ello, la hipótesis de esta investigación es que es posible que los stakeholders, como beneficiarios de las cláusulas contractuales que se incorporan en materia de sostenibilidad empresarial, exijan el cumplimiento de las obligaciones contenidas en ellas, porque permite lograr el fin del contrato o, bien, la reparación de los daños en tanto se les reconoce un interés legítimo en su cumplimiento.

Resumos Vamos nos concentrar em uma nova abordagem sobre o consentimento sexual envolvendo a contratualização, um projeto que surgiu na esteira das revelações do movimento #MeToo. O “contrato de consentimento” tem como objetivo esclarecer de forma explícita e por escrito o acordo de cada parte. Inicialmente apresentado como um “preservativo digital” para pacificar os encontros sexuais e garantir uma boa sexualidade, rapidamente aparece como uma nova forma de submissão. Pressupondo um indivíduo autônomo, transparente consigo mesmo e capaz de um consentimento informado e voluntário, este projeto contratual expõe o contratante a colocar seu corpo a serviço da gozo do outro. Na encruzilhada das máximas sadianas e kantianas, este projeto contratual parece buscar alinhamento com uma herança contratualista dupla (como o contrato social) e filosofias modernas de autonomia, mas apresenta um lado perverso inesperado. Vamos interrogar esses pressupostos aqui, com o objetivo de demonstrar como essa solução contratual sem precedentes pode constituir uma solução perversa para os riscos inerentes aos encontros sexuais, buscando garantir a satisfação enquanto mascara o aprisionamento dos corpos sob uma promessa de harmonia e proteção contra abusos. contratualização MeToo #MeToo parte preservativo digital sexualidade submissão autônomo voluntário outro kantianas social autonomia inesperado aqui abusos

Nous nous intéresserons à un traitement inédit du consentement sexuel qui en passe par la contractualisation, dont le projet est apparu dans la suite des révélations de #MeToo. Le “contrat de consentement” permettrait d’expliciter et de formaliser par écrit l’accord de chacun à la rencontre sexuelle. Présenté d’abord comme un “digital condom” pour pacifier la rencontre et garantir une bonne sexualité, il apparaît néanmoins rapidement comme une forme nouvelle d’assujettissement. Postulant un individu autonome, capable d’un consentement libre et éclairé, ledit contrat expose celui-ci à mettre son corps au service de la jouissance de l’autre. À la croisée des maximes sadienne et kantienne, ce projet semble vouloir s’inscrire dans un double héritage contractualiste (celui du pacte social) et des philosophies modernes de l’autonomie, mais présentant un envers pervers inattendu. Autant de présupposés que nous interrogerons ici. Il s’agira alors de montrer en quoi cette solution contractuelle peut constituer une solution perverse aux risques inhérents à la rencontre sexuelle, visant à garantir une satisfaction tout en masquant l’asservissement des corps sous une promesse d’harmonie et de protection contre l’abus. contractualisation MeToo #MeToo dexpliciter d expliciter laccord l accord sexuelle dabord abord digital condom sexualité dassujettissement. dassujettissement assujettissement. assujettissement d’assujettissement autonome dun éclairé celuici celui ci lautre. lautre autre. autre l’autre kantienne sinscrire s inscrire social lautonomie, lautonomie autonomie, autonomie l’autonomie inattendu ici sagira agira lasservissement asservissement dharmonie harmonie labus. labus abus. abus l’abus

We will focus on a new approach to sexual consent involvintg contractualization, a project that emerged in the wake of the #MeToo revelations. The “consent contract” aims to explicitly and in writing clarify the agreement of each party. Initially presented as a “digital condom” to pacify sexual encounters and ensure a good sexuality, it quickly appears as a new form of submission. Postulating an autonomous individual, transparent to himself and capable of informed and voluntary consent, this contractual project exposes the contracting party to putting their body at the service of the other’s jouissance. At the crossroads of Sadian and Kantian maxims, this contractual project seems to seek alignment with a dual contractualist heritage (like the social contract) and modern philosophies of autonomy, but presents an unexpected perverse underside. We will interrogate these presuppositions here, aiming to demonstrate how this unprecedented contractual solution can constitute a perverse solution to the inherent risks of sexual encounters, seeking to guarantee satisfaction while masking the enslavement of bodies under a promise of harmony and protection against abuse. contractualization MeToo revelations contract digital condom sexuality submission individual others other s jouissance maxims like autonomy underside here abuse

Nos centraremos en un nuevo enfoque sobre el consentimiento sexual que implica la contractualización, un proyecto que surgió a raíz de las revelaciones del movimiento #MeToo. El “contrato de consentimiento” tiene como objetivo aclarar explícita y por escrito el acuerdo de cada parte. Inicialmente presentado como un “condón digital” para pacificar los encuentros sexuales y garantizar una buena sexualidad, rápidamente se manifiesta como una nueva forma de sumisión. Postulando un individuo autónomo, transparente consigo mismo y capaz de un consentimiento informado y voluntario, este proyecto contractual expone al contratante a poner su cuerpo al servicio del goce del otro. En la encrucijada de las máximas sadomasoquistas y kantianas, este proyecto contractual parece buscar alinearse con una herencia contractualista dual (como el contrato social) y filosofías modernas de autonomía, pero presenta un reverso perverso inesperado. Interrogaremos estos presupuestos aquí, con el objetivo de demostrar cómo esta solución contractual sin precedentes puede constituir una solución perversa a los riesgos inherentes de los encuentros sexuales, buscando garantizar la satisfacción mientras enmascara el sometimiento de los cuerpos bajo una promesa de armonía y protección contra el abuso. contractualización MeToo #MeToo parte condón digital sexualidad sumisión autónomo voluntario otro kantianas social autonomía inesperado aquí abuso

Abstract This paper deals with the entire agreement clause in the Chilean law of contracts. It argues that the entire agreement clause has the function of promoting legal certainty, by precisely defining the terms and conditions of the contract based on the intention of the parties. The legal effect of the clause is to limit the declarations, promises and binding agreements to what is stated in the text of the signed contractual document, depriving all preliminary and contemporary communications to the signing of the contractual document of legal effect to integrate the terms and conditions of the contract. It further argues that the entire agreement clause has no impact on the criteria for contractual interpretation, on the implications of an implied term, on liability for misrepresentation, and on future variations or modifications of the contract. Lastly, it is argued that the clause is generally valid in the Chilean law of contracts, except in consumer law.

Resumen Este trabajo trata sobre la cláusula de contrato completo en el derecho contractual chileno. Se sostiene que la cláusula de contrato completo tiene por función promover la certeza en los negocios jurídicos, al circunscribir con precisión los términos y condiciones del contrato fundados en la intención común de los contratantes. El efecto jurídico de la estipulación es limitar las declaraciones, promesas y acuerdos vinculantes de los contratantes a lo consignado en el texto del documento contractual, privando de valor para integrar el contrato a todas las declaraciones, acuerdos, promesas y comunicaciones de las partes preliminares y coetáneas a la suscripción de la convención. De manera adicional, se plantea que, a pesar de que su tenor pudiese inducir a asumir algo diferente, la cláusula de contrato completo no tiene incidencia alguna en la definición de los medios de interpretación, en la integración contractual, en la responsabilidad precontractual por declaraciones falsas y en las variaciones o modificaciones contractuales futuras. Por último, se sostiene que la estipulación resulta en general válida, salvo en la contratación con consumidores.

ABSTRACT The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its negative labor consequences, such as unemployment, which leaves several families without economic support, has been shocking, in fact, it is due to the alarming number of citizens seeking to generate economic income, that the Ecuadorian Ministry of Labor was forced to issue four ministerial agreements as contractual alternatives to work, among them the Ministerial Agreement MTA-2020-22 was issued, referring to the Entrepreneurship Contract, which seeks to protect entrepreneurs and their employees, encouraging enterprises to legally register in the corresponding National Registry. By maintaining its bases in the Labor Code, the worker fully enjoys labor rights and the guiding principles of Labor Law, but, despite the time this Agreement was issued, the citizenry does not have extensive knowledge about it and its outreach to certain social groups, for example, people deprived of liberty and young entrepreneurs. It is then proposed, as a general objective: Analyze the scope of the Entrepreneurship Contract as a labor alternative, which is achieved through a qualitative methodological approach and methods such as the analytical-synthetic, the historical-logical and the inductive.

RESUMEN El impacto de la pandemia COVID-19 ysus consecuencias negativas laborales, tales como, el desempleo que deja sin un sustento económico a varias familias ha sido impactante, de hecho, es debido a la alarmante cifra de ciudadanos en busca de generar ingresos económicos, que, el Ministerio de Trabajo ecuatoriano se vio obligado a expedir cuatro acuerdos ministeriales como alternativas contractuales del trabajo, entre ellas se expidió el Acuerdo Ministerial MTA-2020-22, referente al Contrato de Emprendimiento, que busca amparar a los emprendedores y a sus empleados, incentivando a los emprendimientosa registrarse legalmente en el Registro Nacional correspondiente. Al mantener sus bases en el Código de Trabajo, el trabajador goza totalmente de los derechos laborales y los principios rectores del Derecho Laboral, pero, a pesar del tiempo de expedición de este Acuerdo, la ciudadanía no tiene un amplio conocimiento sobre el mismo y su alcance frente a ciertos grupos sociales, ejemplo, las personas privadas de libertad y los jóvenes emprendedores. Se plantea entonces, como objetivo general: Analizar el alcance del Contrato de Emprendimiento como alternativa laboral, lo cual se logra a través de un enfoque metodológico cualitativo y métodos tales como el analítico-sintético, el histórico- lógico y el inductivo.

The idea of a data transfer agreement (DTA) template for the South African (SA) research community is receiving increasing attention. While developing such a DTA template is certainly a worthwhile project, questions regarding the project's practical execution should be addressed, including how to best operationalise the envisioned DTA template, and the content of the envisioned DTA template. It is proposed that an empowerment approach be followed in operationalising the envisioned DTA template, which is contrasted with the regulatory approach followed with the material transfer agreement that the Minister of Health promulgated in 2018. While the regulatory approach would entail government making the use of the envisioned DTA template compulsory regardless of the quality of such a template, the empowerment approach, by contrast, entails a focus on developing a high-quality, professionally drafted DTA template for the SA research community and making the use thereof a matter of own choice. Regarding the content of the envisioned DTA template, four hot-button content provisions are analysed, and it is argued that SA research institutions and researchers should be empowered to: (i) have clarity and legal certainty regarding their ownership of data, where relevant; (ii) be able to commercialise their research findings without unnecessary contractual constraints; (iii) avoid falling into the trap of unlawful benefit sharing with research participants; and (iv) be aware that their legal role as responsible parties, where relevant, cannot be contracted out via a DTA.

Resumen Uno de los procesos esenciales en la industria de software, es la negociación de los términos de contratación para la construcción de un software. El contrato de construcción de software es un contrato entre un cliente y un desarrollador, donde el desarrollador crea y entrega una pieza especifica y personalizada de software al cliente. El contrato de construcción de software es un acuerdo legal vinculante que contiene roles y responsabilidades, tiempos de entrega y pagos, criterios de aceptación, eventualidades en casos de fallas o retrasos y procedimientos para ajustes. En adición, en el contrato son especificados los requerimientos para la construcción del software. Este artículo propone el diseño y construcción de un contrato inteligente desplegado en una red blockchain para la gestión de los requerimientos dentro de una metodología ágil de construcción de software. Incluso el contrato inteligente propuesto puede ser usado para los pagos contractuales de cada requerimiento aceptado por el cliente.

Abstract One of the essential processes in the software industry is the negotiation of contract terms for the development of software. The software development contract is a contract between a customer and a developer, whereby the developer creates and delivers a specific, custom piece of software to the customer. The software development contract is a binding legal agreement that contains roles and responsibilities, delivery and payment times, acceptance criteria, eventualities in cases of failure or delay, and procedures for adjustments. In addition, the contract specifies the requirements for software development. This article proposes the design and implementation of a smart contract deployed in a blockchain network for requirement management within an agile software development methodology. Even the proposed smart contract is used for the contractual payments of each requirement accepted by the client.

Abstract This article aims to analyze the hypotheses in which it is possible to replace a unilateral sanction resulting from contractual breaches by an administrative agreement, as well as the criteria to be observed when choosing between an agreement or a unilateral sanctioning act. To this end, an analysis will be made of the normative provisions that authorize the adoption of consensus in the Brazilian Public Administration and the cases in which it is possible to replace the unilateral administrative act with bilaterality. After defining these assumptions, the existence of authorization in Brazilian law for the replacement of unilateral sanctioning activity, within the scope of administrative contracts, by agreements will be analyzed. Then, the guiding criteria that must be used by the Administration to decide between entering into the agreement or applying the unilateral administrative sanction in the event of contractual administrative infractions will be assessed. In the end, the conclusion will assess the decision-making process by the Administration based on such guiding criteria.

Resumo O presente artigo tem como objetivo analisar as hipóteses em que é possível a substituição de sanção unilateral decorrente de infrações contratuais pelo acordo administrativo, bem como os critérios a serem observados para escolha entre o acordo ou o ato unilateral sancionatório. Para tanto, será feita a análise dos dispositivos normativos que autorizam a adoção da consensualidade na Administração Pública brasileira e os casos em que é possível a substituição do ato administrativo unilateral pela bilateralidade. Após a definição dos referidos pressupostos, será analisada a existência de autorização no Direito brasileiro para a substituição da atividade sancionatória unilateral, no âmbito dos contratos administrativos, por acordos. Em seguida, serão apreciados os critérios balizadores que devem ser utilizados pela Administração para decidir entre celebrar o acordo ou aplicar a sanção administrativa unilateral em caso de ocorrência de infrações administrativas contratuais. Ao final, a conclusão apreciará o processo de tomada de decisão pela Administração com base em tais critérios balizadores.

Resumen: el contrato de compraventa, por su contenido y sus alcances, determina la responsabilidad civil contractual en casos de prácticas indebidas y/o cláusulas abusivas que pueden llegar a transigir las obligaciones contractuales acordadas, como los costos de escrituración y titularización, fecha y firma del contrato, fecha de entrega, cambios en materiales, notaría, garantías y plazos. Los contratos de compraventa de vivienda están contemplados en el Estatuto del Consumidor (Ley 1480, 2011), el cual reglamenta los deberes y obligaciones del comprador y el vendedor, y en el Decreto 735 de 2013, el cual trata sobre la efectividad de la garantía inmobiliaria. Posteriormente, en la Ley 1796 de 2016 se establecieron las medidas de protección del comprador de vivienda. Estas legislaciones se complementan con lo establecido en el Código Civil Colombiano sobre los contratos, la promesa de compraventa y el negocio jurídico para la adquisición de vivienda. La presente investigación pretende responder a los siguientes interrogantes: ¿cómo se atribuye el equilibrio jurídico entre comprador y vendedor durante el proceso de negociación y compra de vivienda nueva en Colombia?, ¿qué cláusulas abusivas se han determinado en los contratos de compraventa de vivienda nueva?, y ¿cuáles son las sanciones legales por la inclusión de cláusulas abusivas en el contrato de compraventa?

Abstract: the sales contract, due to its content and its scope, determines the contractual civil liability in cases of improper practices and/or abusive clauses or unfair terms that may compromise the agreed contractual obligations, such as the costs of deed and securitization, date and signing of the contract, delivery date, changes in materials, notary, guarantees and deadlines. Home purchase contracts are contemplated in the Consumer Statute (Law 1480, 2011), which regulates the duties and obligations of the buyer and the seller, and in Decree 735 of 2013, which deals with the effectiveness of the real estate guarantee. Subsequently, in Law 1796 of 2016, the protection measures for the home buyer were established. These legislations are complemented by the provisions established in the Colombian Civil Code on contracts, the promise to sell agreement and the legal business for the acquisition of housing. This research aims to answer the following questions: how is the legal balance between buyer and seller attributed during the process of negotiation and purchase of new housing in Colombia? What abusive clauses have been determined in the contracts for the sale of new housing? and, What are the legal sanctions for the inclusion of abusive clauses in the sales contract?

Resumo: o contrato de venda, pelo seu conteúdo e abrangência, determina a responsabilidade civil contratual nos casos de práticas indevidas e/ou cláusulas abusivas que possam comprometer as obrigações contratuais pactuadas, como as custas de escritura e securitização, data e assinatura do contrato, data de entrega, alterações de materiais, cartório, garantias e prazos. Os contratos de compra de casa estão contemplados no Estatuto do Consumidor (Lei 1.480, de 2011), que regulamenta os deveres e obrigações do comprador e do vendedor, e no Decreto 735 de 2013, que trata da eficácia da garantia imobiliária. Posteriormente, na Lei 1.796 de 2016, foram estabelecidas as medidas de proteção ao comprador de casa própria. Essas legislações são complementadas pelo que está estabelecido no Código Civil colombiano sobre contratos, promessa de venda e negócios jurídicos para a aquisição de habitação. Esta pesquisa tem como objetivo responder as seguintes perguntas: Como é atribuído o equilíbrio jurídico entre comprador e vendedor durante o processo de negociação e compra de novas casas na Colômbia? Que cláusulas abusivas foram determinadas nos contratos de venda de habitação nova? Quais são as sanções legais para a inclusão de cláusulas abusivas no contrato de venda?

ABSTRACT This commentary analyses a recent decision which declared that a preliminary agreement regarding the sale of an apartment was null and void, since it did not fulfil the requirements of a promissory contract. The court also rejected the sellers’ claim of liquidated damages for CLP $ 40 000 000 on account that it would cause an unjust enrichment. Special attention is drawn both to the features of the contract and to the available mechanisms that allow the moderation of the liquidated damages, which enable a more balanced solution to the one reached by the court.

RESUMEN Este comentario analiza una reciente sentencia que declara nulo un contrato de cierre de negocios relativo a la venta de un departamento, por estimar que no cumple con los requisitos propios del contrato de promesa, al tiempo que descarta la procedencia del cobro de una cláusula penal de $40 000 000 en favor del vendedor, en cuanto daría lugar a un enriquecimiento sin causa. Se comenta tanto la fisonomía del contrato impugnado como los mecanismos disponibles para la moderación de la cláusula penal, los cuales pueden permitir una solución más equilibrada que aquella que ofrece el tribunal.

ABSTRACT: This article explores the limits of good faith in the construction of implied terms in contracts. It is contended that these limits are inherent to the construction of implied terms, whose function is to fill up gaps in the contract. Accordingly, good faith can never be the source of the main contractual obligations, but only of secondary or ancillary obligations, which can never alter the function of the contract as a whole or contradict any express term of the contract. This means that whereas good faith, as a general regulatory contractual principle is in itself non waivable, the implied terms extracted with its help can be determined and altered by agreement of the parties, in line with their particular interests involved in the contractual bargain.

RESUMEN: Este trabajo explora los límites de la buena fe en la integración de los contratos. Se sostiene que esos límites son una consecuencia de la naturaleza de la operación de integración contractual, la que tiene por objeto imputar un término implícito al contrato para suplir sus vacíos u omisiones necesitados de reglamentación. En razón de esa naturaleza de la operación de integración contractual, la buena fe no puede ser nunca la fuente de las obligaciones principales del contrato, sino solo de obligaciones secundarias u otros efectos jurídicos accesorios, todos los cuales no pueden nunca alterar el sentido y función del contrato, ni contravenir las estipulaciones expresas de los contratantes. Ello significa que los deberes de conducta y demás efectos jurídicos derivados de la buena fe para integrar las lagunas del contrato se encuentran subordinados a la voluntad común de los contratantes, por lo que son fundamentalmente disponibles. En consecuencia, si bien la buena fe como principio regulador del contrato es esencialmente indisponible, de ello deben distinguirse los deberes de conducta y demás efectos jurídicos derivados de ella para integrar el contrato, los que son modulables y renunciables por los contratantes, de conformidad con sus particulares intereses comprometidos en el intercambio contractual.

We propose and evaluate a contractual structuring instrument (in the form of a Framework Research Agreement) in support of research collaboration partnerships between universities and large industry, specifically for the case of large industry in the South African context. This study includes one large South African originated industry (as the pioneer of concluding Framework Research Agreements with several universities) and multiple South African universities, and stretches over several decades. This study was done within the broader context of the challenges and benefits experienced by both industry and university in the academic engagement sphere of industry-university collaboration. By providing insight from both industry and university perspectives, factors impacting on academic engagement (with specific emphasis on the legislative framework, contractual aspects, institutional research contract practices and institutional risks), are considered and discussed. Recommendations are made for improved industry-university collaboration by sharing experiences from the industry and universities on challenges faced, managing the expectations and proposing mechanisms to support constructive research collaboration through a mutually beneficial contractual framework instrument. SIGNIFICANCE: • A novel Framework Research Agreement as a contractual instrument was developed and pioneered by the industry partner with several South African universities, to create a transparent framework based on fair contracting and determinable remuneration principles. • This study specifically highlights the need for a contractual instrument, in which the intention is to build a long-term contractual relationship to support industry-university collaboration and academic engagement within the existing South African legislative framework. • It further draws attention to research contract management practices and contractual aspects, which until now have been largely ignored in industry-university collaboration and academic engagement frameworks of this kind.

Abstract This article refers to the legal status of the Heads of Agreement in Chile. Since these legal instruments are widely used in Chile, and they do not have specific regulations, there is the need for construing an argument for understanding their legal effects, meaning that they may fall under torts or contractual regimes. The article will conclude that, in order to determine the legal regime applicable to heads of agreement, judges will need to review whether the consent was formed.

Resumen Este artículo se refiere al estatus legal de los heads of agreement en Chile. Dado que estos instrumentos jurídicos son ampliamente utilizados en Chile, y que no cuentan con una regulación específica, es necesario construir una argumentación para entender sus efectos jurídicos, lo que significa que pueden encuadrarse en regímenes extracontractuales o contractuales. El artículo concluirá que, para determinar el régimen jurídico aplicable a los heads of agreement, los jueces tendrán que revisar si el consentimiento se ha formado.

The article analyses the UCP as a form of non-State law. It demonstrates that in some courts the UCP may inadvertently be applied as the governing law of the agreement instead of as contractual terms. The article proceeds to analyse the UCP against Article 3 of the Hague Principles on Choice of Law in International Commercial Contracts as well as along a set of criteria, developed by the author, that endeavours to provide certainty in the choice of non-State law. Based on the application of the above criteria the article concludes that the UCP would be suitable as a choice of governing law of the agreement.

Abstract: The bases and foundations of the pre-contractual duties established in the Chilean legislation regarding insurance contract, connecting them with the structural weaknesses of the adhesion contract and contractual freedom as the cornerstone of every contract. We will see why the legislator adopts certain safeguards in this matter and how this has been related to the contractual balance. In our opinion, what is sought is to protect the real will of the parties, which can normally be seen in the reasonableness of the contractual stipulations. Along these lines, we will analyze the construction of the pre-contractual duties of the parties (insurer and insured), in contrast to the normative stipulations contained in the laws taken into account when enacting Law Nº 20.667, as well as the means of protection outlined for the protection of the creditor. In other words, we will refer to what is protected, when and how, and if there is a right to choose between the different paths offered. This exercise is necessary for an adequate interpretation of these precepts and their possible modification of lege ferenda.

Resumen: Las bases y fundamentos de los deberes precontractuales establecidos en la legislación chilena respecto del contrato de seguro, conectándolos con las debilidades estructurales del contrato por adhesión, y el equilibrio y la libertad contractual como piedra angular de todo contrato. En nuestra opinión, el fundamento que aquí subyace va en la línea de proteger la voluntad real de las partes, lo que normalmente puede vislumbrarse a partir de la razonabilidad de las estipulaciones contractuales. En este contexto, analizaremos la construcción de los deberes precontractuales de las partes (asegurador y asegurado), contrastándolas con las estipulaciones normativas contenidas en las legislaciones tenidas en vista a la hora de dictar la Ley Nº 20.667 (2013). En otras palabras, nos referiremos al objeto de estos deberes, su temporalidad y textura, refiriéndonos en concreto a: qué se protege, cuándo y cómo, develando y puntualizando ciertos aspectos que necesariamente hemos de cuestionar de esta regulación.

Resumen La mayoría de las aeronaves se adquieren mediante contratos de leasing, y la carga financiera recae en el arrendador debido a su financiación de equipos pesados para el arrendatario en estos contratos. Por lo tanto, para garantizar que el arrendatario cumpla con el pago del arrendamiento al arrendador, se redacta en el contrato una cláusula “contra viento y marea”. Esto obliga al pago por parte del arrendatario independientemente de cualquier cambio circunstancial que les dificulte el pago. Sin embargo, debido a la pandemia, las compañías aéreas han sufrido una grave escasez de efectivo que les dificulta el cumplimiento de sus próximas obligaciones contractuales. Las compañías aéreas están debatiendo la posibilidad de invocar la fuerza mayor en estos contratos para excusar el incumplimiento y evitar daños y perjuicios; no obstante, teniendo en cuenta los desarrollos en Derecho Aéreo Internacional Privado y la naturaleza del contrato, será difícil tomar tales medidas. Este documento propone aplicar la onerosidad excesiva codificada en los Principios de Unidroit sobre Contratos Comerciales Internacionales para que las compañías aéreas puedan renegociar el contrato con los arrendadores en lugar de eludir completamente su obligación contractual. Esto proporcionará un respiro al arrendatario y también garantizará que su obligación hacia el arrendador se mantenga durante la pandemia.

Abstract The majority of aircraft are acquired through leasing agreements, and the financial burden is on the lessor due to their financing of heavy equipment for the lessee in these agreements. Therefore, to ensure that the lessee fulfills their lease payment to the lessor, a “hell or high-water” clause is drafted in the contract. This enforces payment by the lessee regardless of any circumstantial changes that might make it difficult for them to pay. However, due to the pandemic, airlines have suffered from a severe cash crunch making it difficult for them to honor their upcoming contractual obligations. Airline companies are debating whether to invoke force majeure in these contracts to excuse nonperformance and avoid damages; nevertheless, considering developments in Private International Air Law and the nature of the contract, taking such measures will be difficult. This paper proposes to apply the hardship clause codified in the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts so that airlines can renegotiate the contract with their lessors instead of completely avoiding their contractual obligation. This will provide breathing space for the lessee, while ensuring that their obligation towards the lessor is maintained during the pandemic.

Resumo A maioria das aeronaves são adquiridas por meio de contratos de leasing, e a carga financeira recai sobre o locador devido ao seu financiamento de equipamentos pesados para os locatários nesses contratos. Portanto, para garantir que o locatário cumpra com o pagamento do aluguel ao locador, uma cláusula “contra todas as probabilidades” é redigida no contrato. Isso obriga o locatário a efetuar o pagamento, independentemente de qualquer mudança circunstancial que dificulte isso. No entanto, devido à pandemia, as companhias aéreas têm sofrido uma forte escassez de dinheiro que dificulta o cumprimento de suas obrigações contratuais. As companhias aéreas estão discutindo a possibilidade de invocar força maior nesses contratos para justificar o não cumprimento e evitar danos. No entanto, levando em conta os desenvolvimentos do Direito Aéreo Internacional Privado e a natureza do contrato, será difícil tomar tais medidas. Este documento propõe aplicar a onerosidade excessiva codificada nos Princípios de UNIDROIT sobre contratos comerciais internacionais para que as companhias aéreas possam renegociar o contrato com locadores em vez de evadir completamente suas obrigações contratuais. Isso proporcionará tranquilidade ao locatário e garantirá que sua obrigação com o locador seja mantida durante a pandemia.