Resumen El propósito del estudio fue describir y explicar la relación entre las particularidades morfosintácticas de las palabras y el sentido que se invoca a través de ellas en el contexto discursivo de la pandemia, por medio del marco teórico de referencia para el nivel léxico-semántico. Para ello, se recolectó un número representativo de elementos lexicales cuyo rasgo común era la combinación estructural de la denominación coloquial y cotidiana con las denominaciones técnicas correspondientes al área de medicina, para generar nuevos términos, modificados e, incluso, resignificados, pero en alusión a la cotidianidad del confinamiento. El estudio se desarrolló según los planteamientos de la metodología terminológica sistemática Cabré (2017) y Bevilacqua (2017), por cuanto debe seguir una serie de fases consecutivas, a saber: tema, lengua, usuarios, selección de herramientas de extracción lingüística, elaboración de la base de datos e informaciones que se van a incluir en la construcción del corpus. Lo anterior condujo a la recopilación de 208 términos, en un fichero léxico.

Resumo O objetivo do estudo foi descrever e explicar a relação entre as particularidades morfossintáticas das palavras e o significado invocado através delas no contexto discursivo da pandemia, utilizando um quadro teórico de referência para o nível léxico-semântico. Para o efeito, foi coletado um número representativo de elementos lexicais, cuja caraterística comum foi a combinação estrutural de nomes coloquiais e quotidianos com nomes técnicos correspondentes à área da medicina, de modo a gerar novos termos, modificados e até ressignificados, mas alusivos ao carácter quotidiano do confinamento. O estudo foi desenvolvido de acordo com as abordagens da metodologia terminológica sistemática Cabré (2017) e Bevilacqua (2017), na medida em que deve seguir uma série de fases consecutivas: tema, língua, usuários, seleção de ferramentas de extração linguística, elaboração da base de dados e informações para incluir na construção do corpus. Isto levou à coleta de 208 termos num ficheiro lexical.

Abstract The purpose of the study was to describe and explain the relationship between the morphosyntactic particularities of words and the meaning invoked through them in the discursive context of the pandemic, using the theoretical framework of reference for the lexical-semantic level. To this effect, a representative number of lexical elements was collected, whose common feature was the structural combination of colloquial and everyday terms with the technical ones corresponding to the field of medicine, in order to generate new terms, modified and even resignified, but alluding to the daily life of the lockdown. This study was conducted according to the principles of Cabré and Bevilacqua’s systematic terminological methodology, wherein a series of consecutive phases must be followed, namely: topic, language, users, selection of linguistic extraction tools, preparation of the database, and the information to be included in the construction of the corpus. The above led to the compilation of 208 terms in a lexical file.

With this article I explore the relationship between core academic language skills (CALS) - a construct representing a set of high-utility language skills needed to manage the linguistic features prevalent in academic texts across content areas - and schooling outcomes. There has long been an understanding that there is a distinction between academic language and colloquial language, originally described by Jim Cummins (1976) as cognitive academic language proficiency (CALP) and basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS). The construct has only recently been operationalised (Uccelli, Phillips Galloway, Barr, Meneses & Dobbs, 2015) as the individual skills and competencies that underlie CALP. The CALS construct describes an empirically testable set of competencies that address this need. This has been used in the development of an assessment instrument aimed at South African learners - the CALS-I-ZA (MacFarlane, Barr & Uccelli, 2022) - and I investigate whether a measurable link exists between this assessment and schooling outcomes for a sample of Grade 6 learners in 2 public schools in the Gauteng province of South Africa. Schooling outcomes have been measured using the Gauteng Provincial Common Assessments - a provincial examination intended to measure schooling outcomes on a comparable assessment instrument. The study reported on here shows a moderately strong correlation between the CALS-I-ZA and the provincial common examinations (r = 0.64 and r = 0.65). This predictive relationship between CALS and schooling outcomes leads to an argument for direct instruction in CALS as an embedded feature of pedagogy in South Africa.

Resumen José Ignacio Cabrujas (1937-1995) es un referente fundamental en el contexto cultural venezolano del siglo XX. El tema constante en todas sus producciones es Venezuela, sobre todo en la crónica, donde cuestiona abiertamente la conformación política, económica, social y cultural de un país marcado por hechos históricos contradictorios. Por esto, una lectura de las locuciones presentes en dos de sus crónicas permite un acercamiento al lenguaje de su autor para evidenciar cómo, a través del uso de expresiones coloquiales, Cabrujas retrata la realidad de un país. Las locuciones de ambas crónicas son analizadas bajo las clasificaciones y propuestas teóricas de Mario García-Page (2008). Con este análisis se esboza una aproximación a la configuración ideológica-semántica de Cabrujas, que parece estar ya presente en la afirmación de su personaje Purificación, en Acto cultural (1976): “Es la patria una cuestión de acento”.

Abstract José Ignacio Cabrujas (1937-1995) is a fundamental reference in the Venezuelan cultural contex of the 20th century. The constant theme in all his productions is Venezuela, especially in the chronicle, where he openly questions the political, economic, social and cultural conformation of a country marked by contradictory historical facts. For this reason, a reading of the voice over present in two of his chronicles allows an approach to the author's language in order to show how, through the use of colloquial and everyday expressions, Cabrujas portrays the reality of a country from its speech act. The voice over in both chronicles are analyzed according to the theoretical postulates Mario García-Page (2008). With this analysis we outline an approach to Cabrujas ideological-semantic configuration, which seems to be already present in the affirmation of his character Purificación in Acto cultural (1976): “Homeland is a matter of accent”.

RESUMEN Una de las dificultades a las que se enfrentan los traductores a la hora de traducir diálogos cinematográficos es la transmisión del lenguaje coloquial y la garantía de la oralidad y comprensión del metatexto. Según Hatim y Mason (2005), en la actividad traductora confluyen factores pragmáticos, que dependen de un contexto comunicativo y factores culturales, caracterizados por la forma peculiar de cada persona de percibir el mundo a través de los parámetros de su comunidad cultural. La presente investigación se centra en el papel que desempeña la fraseología en la traducción audiovisual dentro de la combinación lingüística ruso/español. El enfoque metodológico en la subtitulación fansubs de fraseologismos implica una meticulosa selección de unidades idiomáticas relevantes en el diálogo cinematográfico, seguida de la identificación de equivalentes adecuados en el idioma meta. Este enfoque sistemático permitió arrojar luz sobre la relevancia de la fraseología en la traducción audiovisual ruso/español, contribuyendo al entendimiento de este proceso y de las decisiones que los traductores deben tomar en este contexto específico. metatexto 2005, 2005 , (2005) pragmáticos culturales cultural rusoespañol ruso español ruso/español cinematográfico meta específico 200 (2005 20 (200 2 (20 (2 (

ABSTRACT One of the difficulties translators faces when translating film dialogue is how to convey colloquial language and ensure the orality and comprehension of the metatext. According to Hatim and Mason (2005), pragmatic factors, which depend on the communicative context, and cultural factors, which are characterised by each person’s peculiar way of perceiving the world through the parameters of his or her cultural community, come together in the translation activity. The present research focuses on the role of phraseology in audiovisual translation within the Russian/Spanish language combination. The methodology used is based on the analysis of concrete examples of idiomatic phrases subtitled into Russian by fansubs. The methodological approach in fansub subtitling of phraseologisms involves a meticulous selection of relevant idiomatic units in the film dialogue, followed by the identification of suitable equivalents in the target language. This systematic approach shed light on the relevance of phraseology in Russian-Spanish audiovisual translation, contributing to the understanding of this process and the choices translators must make in this specific context. metatext 2005, 2005 , (2005) factors context persons person s community activity RussianSpanish Spanish combination fansubs 200 (2005 20 (200 2 (20 (2 (

RESUMO Uma das dificuldades que os tradutores enfrentam quando traduzem diálogos de filmes é como transmitir a linguagem coloquial e garantir a oralidade e a compreensão do metatexto. De acordo com Hatim e Mason (2005), os fatores pragmáticos, que dependem do contexto comunicativo, e os fatores culturais, que se caracterizam pela forma peculiar de cada pessoa perceber o mundo através dos parâmetros da sua comunidade cultural, se combinam na atividade de tradução. A presente investigação se centra no papel da fraseologia na tradução audiovisual no âmbito da combinação linguística russo/espanhol. A metodologia utilizada se baseia na análise de exemplos concretos de frases idiomáticas legendadas em russo por fans (fansubs). A abordagem metodológica utilizada na legendagem de fraseologismos em fansubs envolve uma seleção meticulosa de unidades idiomáticas relevantes no diálogo do filme, seguida da identificação de equivalentes adequados na língua de chegada. Esta abordagem sistemática permitiu revelar a relevância da fraseologia na tradução audiovisual russo-espanhola, contribuindo para a compreensão deste processo e das escolhas que os tradutores deveriam fazer neste contexto específico. metatexto 2005, 2005 , (2005) pragmáticos comunicativo culturais cultural russoespanhol espanhol russo/espanhol fansubs. . (fansubs) filme chegada russoespanhola, russoespanhola espanhola, espanhola russo-espanhola específico 200 (2005 (fansubs 20 (200 2 (20 (2 (

Abstract: Media competence involves the mastery of knowledge, skills and attitudes oriented to the production, management, and analysis of media content with and from different environments that promote critical thinking. This article gathers the findings of a research conducted in four countries -Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina, and Boliviawhere a quantitative measurement instrument of media competence was applied to a sample of 1,730 undergraduate students from eight universities. The re search was limited to two social networks, YouTube, and Instagram, where user participation acquires greater relevance. The results indicate that in the use of these social networks there is a predominance of colloquial language and a limited production of content, focused on entertainment and personal tastes. At the same time, however, there is a growing use linked to learning, of an informal nature, through the production of video tutorials, especially in the case of YouTube. Likewise, the need for greater digital and audiovisual literacy is identified, allowing young people to use these networks in a pedagogical way, so that they become educational scenarios that promote greater participation, discussion, and expression of students.

Resumen: La competencia mediática comporta el dominio de conocimientos, destrezas y actitudes orientadas a la producción, gestión y análisis de contenidos mediáticos con y desde diversos entornos que propician el pensamiento crítico. Este artículo recoge los hallazgos de una investigación realizada en cuatro países -Colombia, Ecuador, Argentina y Boliviaen donde se aplicó un instrumento de medición cuantitativo de la competencia mediática a una muestra de 1,730 estudiantes de pregrado de ocho universidades. La indagación estuvo circunscripta a dos redes sociales, YouTube e Instagram, donde la participación de los usuarios adquiere mayor relevancia. Los resultados indican que en el uso de estas redes sociales hay un predominio del uso del lenguaje coloquial y una limitada producción de contenidos, centrada en el entretenimiento y los gustos personales. Pero a la vez tiene lugar en forma creciente un uso vinculado con el aprendizaje, de tipo informal, a través de la producción de videotutoriales, sobre todo en el caso de YouTube. Asimismo, se identifica la necesidad de una mayor alfabetización digital y audiovisual, que permita a los jóvenes utilizar de manera pedagógica estas redes, para que se conviertan en escenarios educativos que promuevan una mayor participación, discusión y expresión de los estudiantes.

Resumen: Poner la química en contexto comprende una de las estrategias pedagógicas para facilitar su proceso de enseñanza y aprendizaje al establecer conexiones entre los conceptos propios de la asignatura y aspectos de la vida cotidiana. El presente artículo muestra una revisión sobre la forma en que otros autores han abordado la enseñanza contextualizada de las ciencias desde sus entornos, describiendo, a su vez, una experiencia pedagógica ejecutada en el marco de una secuencia didáctica que fue aplicada en el contexto socioeducativo rural de los estudiantes del Colegio Ecológico de Floridablanca (Santander), con la intención de estudiar los principios de la química en un ámbito real y teniendo como eje articulador, el lenguaje coloquial. Los datos obtenidos mediante observación, dan cuenta que el análisis de la expresión «somos como agua y aceite», encaminó a los estudiantes de una forma práctica hacia el estudio y comprensión de los conceptos de tipos de enlace químico, principios de solubilidad y densidad. De este modo, el lenguaje coloquial constituye una herramienta potencializadora para la enseñanza y el aprendizaje situado de las ciencias que posibilita la articulación entre los nuevos conocimientos y aspectos propios del entorno en el cual se desarrolla el proceso educativo.

Abstract: Putting chemistry in context is a pedagogical strategy that facilitates the teaching and learning of this subject because it establishes connections between chemistry concepts and aspects of daily life. This article reviews the ways in which other authors have investigated the contextualized teaching of science in their environments. It also describes a pedagogical experience that was implemented within the framework of a didactic sequence applied in a rural socio-educational context, i.e., the Colegio Ecológico de Floridablanca (in Santander, Colombia). Said learning experience aimed to teach students principles of chemistry in a real environment using colloquial language to make connections. The data obtained through observation show that the analysis of the expression “we are like water and oil” directed the students in a practical way to study and understand the concepts of types of chemical bonds, principles of solubility, and density. In this way, colloquial language served as a tool that boosted the situated teaching and learning of sciences and made it possible to connect new knowledge with aspects of the environment where the educational process took place.

Resumen El objetivo del presente artículo es el tratamiento de la metáfora como recurso lingüístico capaz de transmitir contenido evaluativo y humorístico en el discurso oral y coloquial. En el marco de esa interacción, las emociones desempeñan un papel fundamental, ya que recogen los pensamientos y valoraciones del hablante hacia otros individuos o entidades, situación que evidencia en mayor o menor medida la actitud del emisor, que desembocará en diversas reacciones por parte de los restantes interlocutores. A partir del análisis de diversos fragmentos conversacionales pretendemos demostrar cómo la metáfora (junto a otros fenómenos como la ironía o la cortesía) puede potenciar contenidos evaluativos y humorísticos en una interacción y no siempre con un efecto negativo, sarcástico o de burla, sino también como un medio positivo para afianzar los nexos entre los interlocutores o, incluso, para procesos de “auto-humor” o afectivos.

Abstract The objective of this article is to discuss metaphor as a linguistic resource capable of transmitting evaluative and humorous content in oral and colloquial discourse. In such interactions, emotions play a fundamental role as they collect the thoughts and assessments of the speaker towards other individuals or entities, which, to a greater or lesser extent, makes the speaker’s attitude evident and may lead to various reactions on the part of the other partners. From the analysis of various conversational fragments, we will try to demonstrate how metaphor –together with other phenomena such as irony or politeness– can enhance humor in an interaction. In addition, we show metaphor does not always have a negative, sarcastic or mocking effect, but rather it may also be used in a positive way to strengthen the links between the interlocutors or, even, for conveying "self-humor" or affective processes.

ABSTRACT Purpose many of the difficulties that usually arise in colloquial conversation may be repaired as the interaction develops. Conversational repair is a linguistic strategy that indicates evidence of the partners‘ abilities to promote necessary mutual understanding for effective communication. This study aims to analyze the oral text repairs of 10 older adults with Alzheimer's dementia (AD) and 10 older adults without dementia, as well as to verify whether they are a useful element for language disorders identification in AD. Methods autobiographical interview and application of items of the MetAphAs protocol were proposed. Data were analyzed based on the methodology of conversational analysis. Results the results indicated that self-initiated repairs are frequent in both groups, although subjects with AD made more use of inadequate repairs, which did not favor mutual understanding. Hetero-repairs occurred most frequently in conversations with individuals with AD, suggesting the need for interlocutor’s intervention to adjust a specific utterance. Conclusion this research has shown that using repair strategies is sensitive to individuals with AD cognitive performance.

RESUMEN Objetivo en la conversación coloquial surgen diversas dificultades que se van reparando en vivo mientras esta se va desarrollando. La reformulación conversacional es una estrategia lingüística que va dando cuenta de las capacidades de los interlocutores para favorecer la comprensión mutua necesaria para la comunicación efectiva. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo analizar las reformulaciones de 10 adultos mayores con Demencia tipo Alzheimer (DTA) y 10 adultos mayores sin demencia, y determinar si constituyen un elemento útil para el diagnóstico de la persona con DTA. Método se eligió el análisis conversacional como procedimiento metodológico y se propuso una entrevista de tipo conversación de corte autobiográfico y la aplicación de algunos ítems del protocolo MetAphAs. Resultados los resultados muestran que la reformulación auto-iniciada es más frecuente que las demás en ambos grupos, aunque las personas con DTA realizan mayor número de reformulaciones inadecuadas que muchas veces no favorecen la comprensión mutua. La hetero-reformulación aparece con mayor frecuencia en las conversaciones en personas con DTA, indicando la necesidad de la intervención del interlocutor para reparar la conversación. Conclusión en la presente investigación se ha podido evidenciar que la capacidad de utilizar la estrategia de reformulación es sensible al desempeño cognitivo de personas con DTA.

Resumen: Este artículo indaga en un corpus de columnas de la lengua (CDL) de la revista argentina El Hogar: la sección titulada “La paja en el ojo ajeno…” firmada por Pescatore di Perle (Francisco Ortiga Anckermann). Esta CDL se publicó semanalmente por casi cincuenta años (entre 1914 y 1963). Analizaré aquí las columnas de 1927, año en el que aparecieron nuevos debates sobre la lengua nacional, especialmente, en el diario Crítica. En el contexto de la institucionalización de las disciplinas filológicas en Argentina, la profesionalización del área y la aparición de dialectos porteños y expresiones coloquiales en los medios de comunicación, las columnas de Pescatore di Perle fueron una propuesta sobre el uso de la lengua para la clase social que la revista representaba. La hipótesis que se quiere demostrar es que, en ellas, mediante una estrategia de premio y recompensa, se incita al lectorado a apropiarse de un sentido común sobre los usos «adecuados» de la lengua. La selección y premiación de la caza de erratas y los comentarios al respecto funcionaron como acciones propias de la «vigilancia del lenguaje», según la perspectiva de la Laienlinguistik, mediante la cual se proponía una ciudadanía lingüística determinada. Por otro lado, estas CDL fomentaban la corrección lingüística a la vez que utilizaban, sin cuestionar, ciertas expresiones coloquiales, así como léxico del cocoliche y el lunfardo. Estos funcionaban, en apariencia, como objetos de ridiculización, pero en el mismo acto, se les daba cuerpo y representación para su uso y dominio.

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to inquire a corpus of columns of the language (CDL) of the Argentine magazine El Hogar: the section entitled “La paja en el ojo ajeno...” signed by Pescatore di Perle (Francisco Ortiga Anckermann). This CDL was published weekly for almost fifty years (between 1914 and 1963). I will analyze the columns of 1927, the year in which new debates on the national language appeared, especially in the newspaper Crítica. In the context of the institutionalization of philological disciplines in Argentina, the professionalization of the disciplone and the appearance of porteño dialects and colloquial expressions in the media, Pescatore di Perle’s columns were a proposal on the use of language for the society that the magazine represented. The hypothesis that we want to demonstrate is that in them, through a strategy of prize and reward, the readership is encouraged to appropriate common sense about the “appropriate” uses of the language. The selection and awarding of the hunt for typos and the comments on the matter functioned as actions typical of «language surveillance», according to the perspective of Laienlinguistik, through which a specific linguistic citizenship was proposed. On the other hand, these CDL promoted linguistic correctness while using, without questioning, certain colloquial expressions as well as lexicon of cocoliche and lunfardo. This functioned, apparently, as objects of ridicule but in the same act, they were given body and representation for their use and domination.

Die Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT), 'n omvattende sinchroniese woordeboek waarvan die eerste deel in 1951 verskyn, stel hom ten doel om die woordeskat van Afrikaans in sy wydste omvang, van vandag tot sowat honderd jaar gelede, te bewerk. Nes soortgelyke woordeboeke van ander tale is die WAT vir sy totstandkoming in hoë mate afhanklik van poëme en sitate wat gewone taalgebruikers in die laaste dekades van die vorige millennium per gewone pos na die woordeboek gestuur het. Vir byna elke trefwoord van U tot Z, wat nog gedefinieer en toegelig moet word, bly hierdie versameling van sowat 4,5 miljoen handgeskrewe en getikte kaartjies die beginpunt. Maar sedert die koms van die rekenaar, in die 1980's, het nuwe tegnologieë die maniere waarop woordeboekmakers werk, ingrypend verander. In die era van korpusleksikografie word kaartversamelings stelselmatig aangevul deur elektroniese korpusse van werklike taalgebruik waarin woorde onmiddellik en op verskillende maniere gesorteer en ondersoek word. Hoe groter, omvattender en gebalanseerder die korpus, hoe minder hoef redakteurs op persoonlike indrukke terug te val. Tog het van die WAT se eweknieë, soos die (veel groter) Oxford English Dictionary (OED), in dié tyd van aanlyn teksversamelings ou leesprogramme voortgesit en selfs etlike nuwes begin. Groot korpusse bevat dikwels teks uit koerante, tydskrifte, romans en dergelike, waarin die hedendaagse, algemene, geskrewe variëteit van die taal die botoon voer en ander variëteite (streektaal, vaktaal, geselstaal, woorde en uitdrukkings van vorige geslagte) minder goed verteenwoordig is. Deur vir vrywillige en betaalde lesers spesifieke tekste te kies, probeer leesprogrambestuurders dié leemtes aanvul. Deur 'n semi-outomatiese ontleding van een so 'n uit-gesoekte teks, die roman Draaijakkals (1999) deur George Weideman, illustreer hierdie artikel, met aanbevelings ten slotte, hoe 'n leesprogram in 'n hersieningsfase tot nuwe en bygewerkte artikels in die WAT kan bydra.

The Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT) is a comprehensive, synchronic dictionary, the first volume of which was published in 1951. Its aim has been to treat the vocabulary of Afrikaans in its broadest scope, from today back to about one hundred years ago. Like similar dictionaries for other languages, the WAT originally came into existence dependent to a large degree on the phrases and citations ordinary language users sent to the dictionary by surface mail during the last decades of the previous millennium. For almost every headword from U to Z that still needs to be defined and elucidated, this collection of more than 4,5 million hand-written or typed cards has remained the starting point. However, since the arrival of computers in the 1980s, new technologies have fundamentally changed the way dictionary makers work. In the era of corpus lexicography, card collections have been systematically supplemented by electronic corpuses reflecting real language use, in which words can be sorted and analysed directly and with the use of various criteria. The larger, more comprehensive and more balanced the corpus, the less editors have to rely on personal impressions. Yet, in these days of online text collection, some of the WAT's peers, such as the (much more extensive) Oxford English Dictionary (OED), have maintained established reading programmes and even initiated several new ones. Large corpuses contain mostly texts from newspapers, magazines, novels and such like, in which the current, general and written varieties of the language dominate and other varieties (regional language, technical language, colloquial language, words and expressions of previous generations) are less well represented. By selecting specific texts for volunteer and paid readers, reading-programme managers have attempted to fill these gaps. Through a semi-automatic analysis of such a selected text, the novel Draaijakkals (1999) by George Weideman, this article demonstrates and subsequently recommends how a reading programme in a reviewing phase may contribute to new and augmented entries in the WAT.

Pragmatic markers are a frequent phenomenon in spoken language. However, there have been very few studies on pragmatic markers in spoken Afrikaans. Pragmatic markers act as important contextualization cues in the sense that it directs interlocutors in terms of the relevance of an utterance and enables the speaker to succinctly reveal an attitude towards the proposition of the utterance. In this study the focus is on a specific type of pragmatic marker, namely vague category markers. Vague category markers (henceforth VCMs) are a subcategory of pragmatic markers which include a multiword lexical unit or word cluster such as "and things/stuff" ("en goed") and "or something" ("of iets"). VCMs are a specific realisation of vague language. Vague language refers to language use that is intentionally vague. Although VCMs are prevalent in many languages, it has not been studied by way of corpus-linguistic methods in Afrikaans. The present study uses corpus-linguistic methods to identify, categorise and analyse vague category markers in a self-compiled spoken corpus namely the Pretoriakorpus van Omgangsafrikaans (Pretoria corpus of Colloquial Afrikaans) (henceforth PO corpus). The PO corpus consists of transcribed conversations of native Afrikaans speakers recorded in Pretoria between 2015 and 2018. The data shows that VCMs do occur frequently in spoken Afrikaans. Table 1, attached as an addendum, gives a detailed account of the various VCMs as well as their normalised frequencies in the PO corpus. The two most frequent VCMs are "en goed" ("and things/stuff) and "of iets" ("or something") and variations thereof. In the literature, a distinction is made between adjunct and disjunct VCMs. The adjunct VCMs typically start with "and" and enable the speaker to comply with Grice's maxim of quantity indicating that more could be said. Disjunct VCMs typically start with "or" and enable the speaker to comply with Grice's maxim of quality, indicating that the given information might not be completely accurate. In Afrikaans, both adjunct and disjunct VCMs are found - the adjunct form starting with "en" ("and") and the disjunct form with "of ("or"). VCMs function on textual, epistemic and sociopragmatic levels. On textual level, it acts as an anaphoric device indicating that the previous element(s) could be understood as an example of a more general set of elements thereby creating textual cohesion. On epistemic level, it can function as a hedge to soften expectations regarding the truth or accuracy of an utterance. On sociopragmatic level, it creates common ground between speaker and listener and confirms ingroup membership. In this article, the relevance theory is used as theoretical framework to describe and analyse VCMs. According to the relevance theory, communication is intentional. An utterance is relevant when it has a cognitive effect on the listener without requiring high processing. Pragmatic markers, including VCMs, are seen as ostensive stimuli that enable the listener to understand the speaker's communicative intent. Three basic forms of adjunct VCMs were identified in the corpus data: "en goed" ("and things/stuff), "en so (aan)" ("and so on") and "en alles" ("and everthything"). "En goed" has many variations (see table 1) and is the most frequentform. It has a clear textual function and refers back to vague referents - mostly physical objects, but also actions / events and abstract referents. "En so (aan)" is used specially to comply with Grice's maxim of quality by indicating that more could be said. It is often used in conjunction with more abstract categories. "En alles" is often used in situations where sensitive and emotional sentiments are shared. The most frequent disjunct VCMs in the corpus data were "of iets" ("or something"), "of wat ook al" ("or whatever") and "of so" ("or so"). "Of iets" and its variations are the most common form. It is a versatile VCM used for textual, epistemic and sociopragmatic functions. It seems to be the preferred form to use when indicating that a number should be taken as an indication rather than an accurate fact. "Of wat ook al" displays predominantly textual functions by acting as anaphoric reference to a vague referent but also indicating that the speaker has given enough information to enable the listener to fill in the missing information. "Of so" collocates rather often with vague categories of place and time but is also used for epistemic and sociopragmatic functions. The following general trends can be identified by studying the VCMs in the PO corpus. • VCMs are used to refer to vague categories. The nature of these categories differs. Some VCMs like "en goed" are predominantly used with vague categories containing concrete examples while others are more often used with abstract categories. • The reach of different VCMs differ. Some only refer to what immediately precedes them in an utterance while others refer to more general ideas or feelings emanating from the utterance. • VCMs show differing degrees of flexibility concerning their form. Some like "en goed" and "of iets" leave room for the inclusion of other words. Others, like "en alles" are fixed and do not allow any insertion of additional words. • Most of the VCMs appear at the end of an utterance or intonation segment, but some VCMs such as "of so" can also appear in the middle section. • VCMs serve textual, epistemic and/or sociopragmatic functions, but the dominant function is context specific. • Some VCMs (such as "of wat ook al") have become fillers for some speakers which might indicate an advanced state of semantic bleaching. In this case, it loses its anaphoric function and becomes a mechanism which aids with processing.

Pragmatiese merkers is 'n frekwente verskynsel van gesproke taal. Daar is egter nog baie min studies onderneem na pragmatiese merkers in Omgangsafrikaans. Pragmatiese merkers tree op as belangrike kontekstualiseringswenke deurdat dit gespreksgenote rig in terme van die relevansie van die uiting, en die spreker in staat stel om, op bondige wyse, 'n houding teenoor die proposisie van die uiting te openbaar. In hierdie studie word gefokus op 'n bepaalde tipe pragmatiese merker, naamlik vaekategoriemerkers (VKM's). Vaekategoriemerkers in Afrikaans is 'n meerwoordige leksikale eenheid, of woordkluster, wat as pragmatiese merker optree, byvoorbeeld "en goed" en "of iets". Hierdie ondersoek het ten doel om aan die hand van korpuslinguistiese metodes te bepaal watter vaekategoriemerkers in Omgangsafrikaans gebruik word en watter pragmatiese funksies dit verrig.

Resumen En los últimos años, el número de estudiantes de español de nacionalidad china ha aumentado vertiginosamente. Según la experiencia docente y los registros en el Corpus de Aprendices de Español (CAES), se observa que el diminutivo, aunque muy frecuente en el registro coloquial entre los hispanohablantes, raramente es utilizado en la expresión oral por parte de los alumnos chinos. Asimismo, numerosos estudiantes tienen dudas sobre su comprensión en diversas situaciones. Este trabajo tiene el objetivo de incluir la enseñanza del diminutivo dentro de los programas universitarios de las facultades de Filología Hispánica en China. Ya que este contenido queda marginado, tanto en la práctica docente como en los manuales de español que se utilizan en dicho país. Teniendo en cuenta la frecuencia elevada y la índole del diminutivo en la comunicación cotidiana, se pretende insertar dicha enseñanza en la asignaturaComprensión audiovisual y Expresión oral, con el fin de formar a los oyentes y los hablantes competentes de español, en cualquier contacto comunicativo con el diminutivo. De tal forma que los estudiantes sinohablantes puedan interactuar de manera natural con los nativos, a la vez que refuerzan su confianza y desarrollan la creatividad lingüística.

Abstract In recent years, the number of native Chinese speakers who are students of Spanish has increased dramatically. In the experience as an instructor and according to the records in the Corpus of Spanish Learners, it has been observed that the Spanish diminutive, although frequently employed in the colloquial register of native Spanish speakers, is rarely used in the Spanish oral expression of Chinese students. Furthermore, many of them fail to fully understand the diminutive in a variety of contexts. This article hopes to include diminutive instruction within departments of Hispanic Philology in Chinese universities. Given that the diminutive has been routinely marginalized both in relation to teaching practices and in the content of manuals for Spanish as a foreign language employed in China. Taking into account the high frequency and nature of diminutive use among native Spanish speakers in everyday communication, we will here demonstrate the incorporation of diminutive instruction into the Spanish Audiovisual Comprehension course in order to better train native speakers of Chinese as competent Spanish listeners and speakers in communicative contact that will include the diminutive. In this way, native Chinese speakers can interact more naturally with native Spanish speakers while increasing both confidence and linguistic creativity.

Resumo Neste artigo, analisa-se que modelo de língua, dentro do continuum entre fala e escrita, é apresentado nos livros didáticos de português como língua estrangeira (PLE). Selecionamos cinco livros didáticos e observamos como eles apresentam os seguintes temas: pronomes oblíquos, pronomes demonstrativos, pronomes pessoais retos, pronúncia do verbo estar e preposição para. Observou-se que a maioria dos materiais adota a norma padrão como parâmetro para os conteúdos. Variantes mais informais da língua são negligenciadas, mesmo quando os exercícios simulam conversas informais. A situação de comunicação em que os falantes se encontram também não é considerada. Questiona-se se a língua padrão é o parâmetro de ensino mais adequado para promover o letramento de alunos de PLE e sua inserção em um ambiente informal no Brasil. Apresentam-se, também, sugestões de tópicos de língua falada que podem ser incorporados ao ensino de PLE.

Abstract This article analyzes how textbooks of Portuguese as a second language dThis article analyzes how textbooks of Portuguese as a second language deal with the spectrum of language variation imposed by Brazilian Portuguese. This study was conducted with five textbooks, comparing five grammar topics across them: object pronouns, demonstrative pronouns, subject pronouns, pronunciation of the verb estar (‘to be’), and the preposition para (‘to’, ‘for’). The results indicate that most materials present a highly standard variation of Portuguese, with colloquial variants being mostly neglected even in exercises mimicking informal dialogues. The materials also ignore the communicative situation in which speakers were inserted. In this scenario, the article questions whether an approach to Portuguese language based on the standard variation would be the best teaching strategy for promoting literacy and the socialization of students in Brazil. We also suggest some topics related to informal Portuguese that could be incorporated in language classes.

Resumen El estudio de las máquinas es un campo que puede rastrearse hasta el Renacimiento. Sin embargo, en la Modernidad adquiere cierto perfil teórico. Se produce una transformación desde los tratados sobre la instalación y uso que conciben a las máquinas como una síntesis entre las estructuras materiales y el trabajo humano, hacia estudios analíticos que las consideran como entidades modulares, como ensamblaje de piezas y mecanismos susceptibles de ser analizados matemáticamente. A su vez, los primeros se caracterizan por un enfoque antropométrico que no ven mayores inconvenientes en usar el lenguaje coloquial e ilustraciones para transmitir el conocimiento acerca de las máquinas; los segundos, en cambio, plantean problemas cognitivos y proponen lenguajes simbólicos específicos para representar el diseño y funcionamiento de las máquinas. Comenzaremos por el siglo XVIII, al ilustrar algunos conceptos provenientes de L'Encyclopédie y de Adam Smith. Posteriormente, nos enfocaremos en los matemáticos del siglo XIX que promovieron las transformaciones mencionadas. En primer lugar, Charles Babbage y su notación mecánica; luego Robert Willis y Franz Reuleaux y sus "mecanismos puros"; y de nuevo Babbage para analizar la complementariedad de la economía política a sus estudios matemáticos sobre las máquinas. Finalmente, mostraremos algunos debates actuales sobre el vínculo entre máquinas, realidad, matemática y lenguaje que, explícita o implícitamente, retoman aquellos problemas y pueden encontrar en el pensamiento de los matemáticos del siglo XIX un antecedente.

Abstract The study of machines is a field whose origin can be traced back to the Renaissance. However, it is in Modernity when it attains a certain theoretical outline. There was a transformation from the treatises on installation and use - which conceive of machines as a synthesis between material structures and human work - towards analytical studies that consider them as modular entities, as the assembly of parts and mechanisms that can be analyzed mathematically. In turn, the former are characterized by an anthropometric approach that sees no major inconvenience in using colloquial language and illustrations to transmit knowledge about machines; the latter, on the other hand, pose cognitive problems and propose specific symbolic languages for representing the design and operation of machines. We will start in the 18th century, illustrating some concepts from L'Encyclopédie and Adam Smith. Later, we will focus on the 19th century mathematicians who promoted the aforementioned transformations. First, Charles Babbage and his mechanical notation. Later Robert Willis and Franz Reuleaux and their "pure mechanisms"; We will then return to Babbage to discuss the complementarity of political economy to his mathematical studies of machines. Finally, we will show some current debates on the link between machines, reality, mathematics and language that, explicitly or implicitly, take up those problems and can find an antecedent in the thought of 19th century mathematicians.

Resumo O estudo das máquinas é um campo que pode ser rastreado até o Renascimento. No entanto, na modernidade adquire certo perfil teórico. Ocorre uma transformação a partir dos tratados de instalação e uso, que concebem as máquinas como síntese entre estruturas materiais e trabalho humano, em direção aos estudos analíticos que as consideram entidades modulares, como a montagem de peças e mecanismos que podem ser analisados matematicamente. Por sua vez, os primeiros são caracterizados por uma abordagem antropométrica que não vê grandes inconvenientes no uso de linguagem coloquial e ilustrações para transmitir conhecimento sobre máquinas; os últimos, por outro lado, apresentam problemas cognitivos e propõem linguagens simbólicas específicas para representar o design e a operação de máquinas. Começaremos no século 18, ilustrando alguns conceitos de L'Encyclopédie e Adam Smith; mais tarde, focalizaremos nos matemáticos do século 19 que promoveram as transformações mencionadas. Primeiro, Charles Babbage e sua notação mecânica. Mais tarde, Robert Willis e Franz Reuleaux e seus "mecanismos puros"; voltaremos depois a Babbage para discutir a complementaridade da economia política com seus estudos matemáticos de máquinas. Finalmente, mostraremos alguns debates atuais sobre a ligação entre máquinas, realidade, matemática e linguagem que, explícita ou implicitamente, abordam esses problemas e podem encontrar um antecedente no pensamento dos matemáticos do século 19.

RESUMO Neste artigo, relacionam-se aspectos em variação no português àqueles cristalizados pela gramática no francês, com o objetivo de se estabelecerem intercomunicações entre produções que se assemelham no português coloquial e/ou não padrão e no francês padrão, partindo-se da hipótese segundo a qual atividades intercomunicativas de explicitação, entre tais particularidades, nas duas línguas, são capazes de gerar melhor proficiência na LE. Essa hipótese consubstancia-se em trabalhos como, por exemplo, os de Miranda de Paulo (2017), Candelier (2016) e Bagno (1999). A metodologia consiste em aulas expositivas e dialogadas, cujo foco incide em estimular os alunos a contrastarem e a inter-relacionarem atividades que contextualizem palavras ou expressões no francês padrão que se organizam de maneira semelhante à variação no português. Os resultados mostram que os sujeitos, além de terem contrastado as duas variedades, nas línguas em contato no estudo, também transpuseram estruturas de uma variedade a outra, adequando-as ao padrão do francês.

ABSTRACT In this article, aspects of variation in Portuguese are related to those crystallized by French grammar, to establish intercommunications between productions that are similar in colloquial and/or non-standard Portuguese and standard French, based on the hypothesis that intercommunicative activities of explicitness between such particularities in both languages can improve FL proficiency. This hypothesis is based on the work of Miranda de Paulo (2017) , Candelier (2016) , and Bagno (1999) . The methodology comprises expository and dialogical classes, which focus on stimulating students to contrast and interrelate activities that contextualize words or expressions in standard French that are organized in a similar way to variation in Portuguese. The results show that the subjects, besides contrasting the two varieties in the languages in the study, also transposed structures from one variety to the other, adapting them to standard French.