Abstract In the context of the international political economy, the human rights protection regime and the foreign investor regime are in tension because of a legal architecture that privileges freedom of capital. A content analysis of the Escazú Agreement would reveal, with respect to access to justice in environmental matters, that individuals and civil society have access to judicial and administrative instances contemplated in national legislation, while foreign investors under bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and free trade agreements (FTAs) have access to justice through international arbitration tribunals that are not always independent, impartial and that privilege the interests of the market. This legal architecture conditions the actions of States in relation to society and its rights. The conclusions point out that the Escazú Agreement faces legal challenges in terms of the investor protection regime, where economic guarantees limit concrete actions to address the climate crisis, protect the environment or enforce human rights.

Resumen En el contexto de la economía política internacional, el régimen de protección de derechos humanos y el régimen de inversores extranjeros atraviesan tensiones como resultado de una arquitectura jurídica que privilegia la libertad de capitales. Un análisis de contenido del Acuerdo de Escazú revelaría, respecto al acceso a la justicia en temas ambientales, que las personas y la sociedad civil acceden a instancias judiciales y administrativas contempladas en la legislación nacional de cada país, mientras que los inversores extranjeros, bajo la figura de los tratados bilaterales de inversión (TBI) y libre comercio (TLC), recurren a la justicia mediante tribunales de arbitraje internacional que no siempre son independientes, imparciales y que privilegian los intereses del mercado. Esta arquitectura jurídica condiciona el accionar de los Estados frente a la sociedad civil y sus derechos. El Acuerdo de Escazú atraviesa desafíos jurídicos frente al régimen de protección a los inversores, en el cual las garantías económicas limitan las acciones concretas para abordar la crisis climática, proteger el medioambiente o hacer efectivos los derechos humanos.

International business arbitration is not covered by Namibia's present arbitration law, the Arbitration Act 42 of 1965 (the Act). There is no explicit language in the Act that addresses foreign arbitration as the Act, solely by default, covers national or domestic arbitration. When it comes to international arbitration, the Act has many flaws. Modern commercial arbitrations are increasingly being guided by the Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration (MLICA) of UNCITRAL (the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) or by state legislation that has been influenced by it. It is undeniable that Namibia must embrace MLICA, including the majority of the 2006 revisions of the MLICA, in order to participate in the global economic village. Furthermore, Namibia has not yet ratified the 1958-adopted New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (CREFAA), which has been hailed as the most effective treaty governing global trade. This article suggests that Namibia should implement both the MLICA and the CREFAA. If this strategy is not adopted, businesses in Namibia will be hesitant to engage in international business transactions due to the lack of legal certainty that the New York Convention and contemporary domestic arbitration legislation bring.

Resumen El artículo está dedicado a analizar el derecho de uso del subsuelo en Rusia, desde sus orígenes hasta nuestros días. El autor lleva a cabo un análisis de la legislación que regula la formación, la modificación y la terminación del derecho de uso del subsuelo, así como de la literatura científica y los procedimientos de aplicación establecidos, identificando los problemas actuales y proponiendo formas de resolverlos. La base del estudio se encuentra constituida por documentos oficiales expedidos por los órganos autorizados para supervisar las actividades de los usuarios del subsuelo, los proyectos de ley, los laudos de arbitraje judicial, así como la práctica de concesión de licencias, entre otros. La base jurídica del trabajo la conforman leyes y actos administrativos de la Rusia prerrevolucionaria, la URSS, la Federación de Rusia, las entidades constitutivas de la Federación de Rusia y la legislación internacional relativa a la regulación del uso del subsuelo.

Abstract The article considers subsoil use rights in Russia, starting from their origins and ending with modern problems. The authors conduct a comprehensive analysis of laws governing the formation, alteration, and termination of subsoil use rights, as well as the relevant scientific literature and law enforcement practice on this issue, identifying several urgent issues and suggesting ways to solve them. The study is based on the work of authorized bodies that control the activities of subsoil users, discussion of draft laws, generalization of modern judicial and arbitration practice, licensing, and other materials. The regulatory framework was formed by laws and other legal acts of pre-revolutionary Russia, the USSR, the Russian Federation, and constituent entities of the Russian Federation and international legislation regulating subsoil use relations.

Resumo: Não obstante o início atribulado, o Tribunal Arbitral do Desporto consolidou-se no direito português como uma instância de referência na resolução de litígios emergentes de relações jurídico-desportivas, em particular nos casos em que, de acordo com a Lei n.º 74/2013, de 6 de setembro, a sua intervenção é obrigatória (arbitragem necessária). Temas dantes não apreciados pelos tribunais e que se encontravam confinados a debates académicos foram objeto de uma intensa elaboração jurisprudencial. Subsistem, todavia, diversos aspetos do regime aplicável à arbitragem desportiva necessária que carecem de uma ampla reforma e que, volvido já algum tempo desde a entrada em vigor da Lei n.º 74/2013, de 6 de setembro, carecem de reforma. O presente artigo apresenta um conjunto de contributos para a melhoria da legislação processual aplicável à arbitragem desportiva necessária em cinco domínios: i) a delimitação do âmbito da jurisdição necessária do Tribunal Arbitral do Desporto; ii) a dualidade de normas aplicáveis aos processos principais e aos processos cautelares; iii) a impugnabilidade das decisões perante o Tribunal Arbitral do Desporto; iv) a publicidade das decisões; v) a articulação entre o Tribunal Arbitral do Desporto e o Tribunal Central Administrativo Sul.

Abstract: Notwithstanding the troubled start, the Court of Arbitration for Sport has established itself in the Portuguese law as reference body in resolving disputes arising from legal sports relations, particularly in cases where Law no. 74/2013, of 6 September, obliges its jurisdiction (arbitration mandatory). Cases previously not delt by the courts and which were confined to academic debates are now submitted to an intense jurisprudential elaboration. However, several aspects of the regime applicable to the necessary sports arbitration that need extensive reform remain, and which, after some time since the entry into force of Law No. 74/2013, of 6 September, need to be reformed. This article presents a set of contributions to the improvement of the procedural legislation applicable to the necessary sports arbitration in five areas: i) the delimitation of the scope of the mandatory jurisdiction of the Court of Arbitration for Sport; ii) the duality of rules applicable to the main proceedings and the precautionary proceedings; iii) the possibility to challenge the decisions in the Court of Arbitration for Sport; iv) the publicizing of the decisions; v) the connection between the Court of Arbitration for Sport and the Central Administrative Court of the South,

An investment is the subject matter in an investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS or international arbitration) or litigation case. Therefore, there can be no such dispute if there is no investment to which the dispute relates. The challenge in this regard lies in that there is no uniform definition of an investment in ISDS. Across jurisdictions, legal instruments such as bilateral investment treaties (BITs), treaties with investment provisions (TIPs), investment contracts and legislation provide different definitions of an investment. However, if an investor-state dispute arises, these definitions are not always final, since there are different methods of assessing the existence of an investment, depending on the applicable legal instrument and arbitration rules. For example, arbitration tribunals formed in terms of the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention) follow a two-step process which starts with a consideration of the definition of an investment in terms of the underlying legal instrument, followed by an assessment of the existence of an investment in terms of Article 25(1) of the ICSID Convention. Salini Construttori SPA and Italstrade SPA v Kingdom of Morocco is a landmark ICSID ISDS case that proposed four criteria that an investment should meet in terms of Article 25(1) of the ICSID Convention. On the other hand, ISDS cases based on the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL) Arbitration Rules or other non-ICSID rules determine the existence of an investment by reference to the relevant legal instrument only. However, the tribunal in Romak SA (Switzerland) v Republic of Uzbekistan held that the Salini criteria are applicable to UNCITRAL arbitration, and by implication, to other non-CSID arbitrations and possibly even litigation. The 2006 Annex 1 of the SADC Protocol on Finance and Investments (SADC FIP) defines an investment broadly as any asset, while the 2016 Annex 1 defines an investment as an enterprise incorporated in a SADC Member State and owned by SADC nationals. Furthermore, the 2006 Annex 1 refers investor-state disputes to ICSID or UNCITRAL arbitration, while the 2016 Annex 1 refers such disputes to the courts of host states. This article has two objectives. Firstly, it seeks to determine if, as was held in Romak, the Salini criteria can be applied to the definition of an investment in non-ICSID arbitration and litigation arising from the 2006 or 2016 Annex 1s respectively. Secondly, the article will assess the implications of such an application of the Salini criteria to the protection of foreign investments in the SADC.

This article seeks to trace the historical origin of arbitration as it is currently practised in South Africa. The resort to alternative dispute resolution methods has existed since time immemorial. The practice of arbitration was identified in the Bible when it was practised by King Solomon. South African traditional communities practised arbitration before the arrival of Western nations in South Africa, who brought with them their norms and practices. The community entrusted the responsibility of resolving disputes amicably to the headman, the Chief or the King. The practice of traditional alternative disputes resolution was disrupted by colonialism, which introduced Roman-Dutch law and subsequently English law influences. The aim of the parties under both Roman-Dutch law and English law was to steer their disputes away from courtrooms with their rigid rules and procedures. Hence the resort to arbitration. Through the passage of time, the parties lost respect for arbitration. Judicial intervention became a necessary tool to enforce the agreement to arbitrate or the subsequent award. A concern was raised in some quarters regarding the South African arbitration legislation that stagnated in 1965 when it was enacted. The sophisticated legal system and the impartial and independent judiciary, provided a strong support to arbitration and its autonomy. The firm judicial support did not detract from the necessity for a complete overhaul of the arbitration prescript, which might position South Africa as the hub of commercial arbitration in Africa and globally. The enactment of the International Arbitration Act, 2017 marked a great milestone towards achieving that goal. Arbitration is embedded in the fabric of South African commercial dispute resolution.

ABSTRACT: The multi-tiered clauses are increasingly used in current contracting both at national and international levels due to the facilities they provide in seeking satisfactory and efficient solutions to conflicts of great significance. However, the admissibility, validity and enforceability of such clauses have been controversial, mainly because of the difficulty in elucidating the legal consequences of not going through the less adversarial stages prior to arbitration. The issue in the Colombian legal system entails a greater controversy especially as a result of the entry into force of recent procedural legislation that enshrines an explicit prohibition regarding the agreement of procedural requirements not contemplated in the law. Given said circumstances, the present paper analyses: (i) the admissibility or non-eligibility of the multi-tiered clauses, their legal consequences and the practical convenience of having them agreed at international level; the unequivocal prohibition contained in Colombian current procedural regulation regarding parties agreeing procedural requirements not contemplated in the law and the difficulties that it causes; and iii) the consequences of the nullity of the multi-tiered clause in the validity of the arbitration agreement inserted in it.

RESUMEN: Las cláusulas escalonadas son cada vez de mayor utilización en la contratación actual, tanto a nivel nacional como internacional, gracias a las facilidades que aportan a la hora de buscar soluciones satisfactorias y eficientes a conflictos de gran envergadura. Sin embargo, la admisibilidad, validez y obligatoriedad de las mismas ha sido controvertida, principalmente por la dificultad a la hora de dilucidar las consecuencias jurídicas que conlleva el no agotamiento de las etapas menos adversariales, previas al arbitraje. La problemática a la luz del ordenamiento jurídico colombiano sube de punto, sobre todo a raíz de la entrada en vigencia de la actual legislación procesal, que consagra una prohibición expresa de pactar requisitos de procedibilidad de carácter extralegal. En razón de ello, en el presente escrito se analiza: i) la admisibilidad o no de las cláusulas escalonadas, sus respectivas consecuencias jurídicas y la conveniencia práctica o no de pactarlas en el plano internacional; ii) la prohibición expresa de pactar requisitos de procedibilidad extralegales, consagrada en la actual normatividad procesal colombiana y las dificultades que la misma genera; y iii) las repercusiones que conlleva la nulidad de la cláusula escalonada en la validez del pacto arbitral inserto en ella.

En este artículo se defiende la hipótesis de que la creación de la Oficina General del Trabajo (OGT) no fue resultado únicamente de acciones doctrinarias de partido, sino que también hizo parte de una tendencia histórica. Un movimiento intervencionista del Estado iniciado con los gobiernos conservadores y mantenido en los años treinta y cuarenta, cuando las iniciativas liberales aceleraron la organización y la institucionalización de la amenaza social por medio de complejos modelos de conciliación y arbitramiento.Así, el análisis del contexto histórico y de su proceso de formación y funcionamiento debe llevar a la comprensión de cómo se lidió con la cuestión social de 1923, año de creación de la Oficina Nacional del Trabajo, hasta 1946, cuando fue creado el Ministerio de Trabajo. Reconstruir la formación de este proyecto institucional y su funcionamiento significa también comprender la incorporación de la salud de los trabajadores en el ámbito estatal, así como entender el sistema de valores en el que se concretaron fenómenos de gran impacto, como la seguridad social y el derecho laboral.

This article defends the hypothesis that the creation of the General Labor Office (OGT) was not just the result of doctrinaire actions by a party but also part of a historic trend. A State interventionist movement begun with the conservative governments was maintained throughout the thirties and forties when initiatives by the liberals "hurried" the organization and institutionalization of the social threat through complex reconciliation and arbitration models. Thus, an analysis of the historic context and of its formation and function leads to an understandings of how the social situation was dealt with from 1923, when the General Labor Office was created, until 1946, with the creation of the Ministry of Labor. Reconstructing the formation of this institutional project and its operation means also understanding the incorporation of worker's health into the state's realm, as well as understanding the system of values which led to phenomena of great impact, such as security social and labor rights.

Defende-se a hipótese de que a criação da Oficina General del Trabajo (OGT) não tenha resultado unicamente de ações doutrinais de partido, mas também faça parte de uma tendência histórica. Um movimento intervencionista do Estado iniciado com os governos conservadores e mantido nos anos 1930 e 1940, quando as iniciativas liberais apuraram a organização e a institucionalização da ameaça social, por meio de complexos modelos de conciliação e arbitramento. Portanto, a análise do contexto histórico e de seu processo de formação e funcionamento deve levar a compreender como se lidou com a questão social de 1923, ano de criação do Escritório Nacional do Trabalho, até 1946, quando foi criado o Ministério do Trabalho. Reconstruir a formação desse projeto institucional e seu funcionamento significa também compreender a incorporação da saúde dos trabalhadores no âmbito estatal, assim como entender o sistema de valores em que se concretizaram fenômenos de grande impacto, como a seguridade social e o direito trabalhista.

El ámbito laboral es, sin lugar a dudas, un foco de conflictos, ya que las relaciones empleadores - trabajadores presentan genéticamente un antagonismo de intereses y un conflicto latente. Esta singularidad obliga a contemplar e inventar mecanismos capaces de regular de forma adecuada este conflicto inherente y consustancial al mundo laboral. Pues bien, el ordenamiento jurídico español no ha dejado de fomentar la utilización de mecanismos extrajudiciales de resolución de conflictos, especialmente en materia laboral. Ciertamente, dichos mecanismos favorecen la paz laboral y, de forma indirecta, refuerzan la productividad de las empresas y el aparato productivo nacional. La singularidad en la materia reside en el hecho de que la ley remite a la negociación colectiva el fomento de estos mecanismos extrajudiciales y los apoya materialmente. Estos mecanismos denominados "autónomos", que se utilizan esencialmente en la resolución de conflictos colectivos, centrarán nuestro propósito. Así, abordaremos en primer lugar los fundamentos constitucional, legal y convencional de estos mecanismos. En segundo lugar analizaremos su funcionamiento y su puesta en marcha mediante los procesos de mediación, conciliación y arbitraje. Destacaremos una tendencia preocupante según la cual las últimas reformas legales intervenidas en España tratan de menoscabar estos mecanismos en beneficio del aumento de los poderes del empresario. Finalmente, se hacen algunos apuntes respecto al derecho colombiano, que presenta sustanciales diferencias, especialmente el amplio marco de actuación del arbitraje obligatorio, que se explican por un contexto histórico y social muy distintos.

The workplace is, without doubt, a source of latent conflict between employers and workers. This uniqueness forced to contemplate and invent mechanisms to adequately regulate this inherent and consubstantial conflict to work. Consequently, the Spanish legal system has not ceased to encourage the use of extrajudicial dispute resolution mechanisms, especially in labor matters. Certainly, these mechanisms promote industrial peace and, indirectly, enhance business productivity and national production. The uniqueness in the matter relies in the fact that the law refers to collective bargaining promoting extrajudicial mechanisms and supports them materially. These so-called autonomous mechanisms, which are mainly used in resolving labor disputes, will be the focus of our purpose. First, we will address the constitutional, legal and conventional foundations of these mechanisms. Secondly, we analyze its operation and its implementation through mediation, conciliation and arbitration. It is highlight a disturbing trend whereby the recent legal reforms approved in Spain is trying to undermine these mechanisms in favor of increasing the powers of the employer. Finally, it will be pertinent to make some notes regarding the Colombian law having different substantial aspects, especially the broad framework of action of compulsory arbitration, which can be explained by a very different historical and social context.

INTRODUCTION This article provides both historical and contemporary characteristics of strike actions that have defined the collective bargaining arena of South Africa's labour relations landscape. PROBLEM INVESTIGATED Contemporary labour legislation appear to overtly protect striking workers and their labour unions from accountability. The constitutionally established principle of 'voluntarism' in the collective bargaining practice prohibits government from intervening in protected strike actions even when such strikes become protracted, violent, and economically crippling. PURPOSE OF THE ARTICLE The article primarily reviews and analyses extant literature and existing legislation in South Africa that inhibits government's ability to intervene in protracted strikes. Based on the review and analysis of secondary data, informed propositions are formulated and presented. METHODOLOGY The conceptual article employs qualitative research strategy using secondary data analysis to arrive at informed propositions. PROPOSITIONS Firstly, there should be compulsory interest arbitration and pre-strike balloting. Secondly, there should be judicial review of the status of procedural strikes that have turned violent. Thirdly, there should be an uncompromising attitude by the courts when adjudicating cases that involve the dismissal of workers found guilty of misconduct during strikes, and labour unions should be held accountable for the violent conduct of their striking members. VALUE OF THE ARTICLE This article provides a theoretical basis upon which existing legislation guiding the conduct of strikes in South Africa could be reviewed by labour and legislative authorities.

The Bolivian legislation provides that the investment arbitration should have its seat in Bolivia. This is a sui generis regulation of this matter. This article shows that said obligation does not stem from the arbitration law, but in Bolivia´s Constitution.

De acuerdo con la legislación boliviana, el arbitraje de inversiones debe tener por sede a Bolivia. Es una regulación sui generis de esta materia. El punto de este artículo es demostrar que tal obligación no tiene su fuente en la ley de arbitraje, sino en la Constitución de Bolivia.

La Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre la Utilización de las Comunicaciones Electrónicas en los Contratos Internacionales es el primer tratado suscrito con el objetivo de facilitar el uso transfronterizo de las comunicaciones electrónicas en las relaciones comerciales. Este artículo describe los objetivos de la política detrás de la preparación de dicho instrumento, su ámbito de aplicación y sus principales disposiciones sustantivas. Se hace referencia específica a la interacción de esa convención con otros tratados ya adoptados por Colombia y otros Estados, como la Convención sobre el Reconocimiento y Ejecución de las Sentencias Arbitrales Extranjeras (la "Convención de Nueva York") y la Convención de las Naciones Unidas sobre Contratos de Compraventa Internacional de Mercaderías (CISG). Por último, el artículo analiza los patrones en la adopción de la Convención en la última década y concluye que Colombia debería considerar la posibilidad de ratificar la Convención, que ha firmado en 2007, para fortalecer su economía digital mediante la modernización de la legislación vigente sobre el comercio electrónico.

The United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts is the first treaty aiming at facilitating cross-border use of electronic communications in commercial relations. The article describes the policy goals behind the preparation of that Convention, its scope of application and its main substantive provisions. It makes specific reference to the interaction of that Convention with other treaties already adopted by Colombia and by numerous other States, such as the Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (the "New York Convention") and the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG). Finally, the article analyzes the patterns in the adoption of the Convention in the last decade and concludes that Colombia should consider ratifying the Convention, which it has signed in 2007, to support its digital economy by modernizing the existing legislation on electronic commerce.

El presente estudio analiza la protección del consumidor en el arbitraje, principalmente en disputas derivadas de la promesa de compraventa de inmueble en construcción en Brasil. Este tema es de gran actualidad, primordialmente desde el veto presidencial al arbitraje del consumidor el pasado 26 de mayo de 2015. Se discute la arbitrabilidad de estas disputas, con base en la legislación brasileña y la jurisprudencia pertinente, y se hace un análisis de las ventajas, desventajas y tendencias del arbitraje de consumo en el contexto de contratos inmobiliarios. A partir de este análisis se plantean sugerencias concretas para la protección del consumidor en el arbitraje.

This study examines consumer protection in arbitration, especially under the example of property development contract disputes in Brazil. This is a very current issue in light of the presidential veto of consumer arbitration on May 26, 2015. The article discusses the arbitrability of these disputes based on Brazilian legislation and relevant case law. It also analyzes of the advantages, disadvantages and trends of consumer arbitration in the context of real estate contracts. The paper concludes by providing suggestions specific to consumer protection in arbitration based on this analysis.

This paper reviews the historical development of arbitration, with special reference to the laws of Spain: the main source of legislation on domestic arbitration currently in force in Chile. The historical study of arbitration law allows to identify and understand the origin of the difficulties experienced by arbitration in its development and the erratic dogmatic evolution trough history. Dogmatic evolution has been full of doctrinal concepts and standards that need to be put into historical and political context. This analysis is especially relevant when considering that those difficulties have arrived to our time as legal institutions such us compulsory arbitration or merit review by the ordinary court, despite medieval Castilian origin and, therefore, an absolute monarchy origin that has nothing to do with modern constitutionalism. Therefore, this paper has a clear vocation de legel ferenda.

El presente trabajo apunta a revisar la evolución histórica del arbitraje, con especial referencia al derecho español en cuanto fuente de la legislación actualmente vigente en Chile sobre arbitraje interno. El estudio histórico-jurídico del arbitraje permitirá identificar y comprender, precisamente, el origen de las dificultades que ha experimentado dicha institución en su desarrollo y la errática evolución dogmática que ha tenido en el tiempo, con concepciones doctrinales y manifestaciones normativas marcadas por el contexto histórico-político en que cada una de ellas se inserta, respectivamente. Dicho análisis adquiere una relevancia especial si se considera que el fenómeno apuntado se proyecta hasta nuestros días a través de figuras que, como el arbitraje forzoso o la revisión del mérito del laudo por la justicia ordinaria, se mantienen enquistadas aun en nuestro ordenamiento jurídico sobre arbitraje interno, pese a tener un origen bien definido en el derecho medieval castellano y, por ende, en un contexto de poder monárquico absolutista que nada tiene que ver con el constitucionalismo moderno que impera en la actualidad. La investigación, por lo mismo, muestra así una clara vocación de lege ferenda.

En el presente artículo se hace una descripción de la estructura legal de los sistemas arbitrales de los países latinoamericanos y se busca identificar qué países han optado por regulaciones monistas o dualistas para la regulación del arbitraje doméstico y el internacional. Así mismo, se identifican aquellas instituciones del arbitraje doméstico concebidas en algunas legislaciones que son abiertamente ajenas a la práctica internacional y se hace un especial énfasis en la legislación colombiana.

This article is a description of the legal structure of arbitration systems in Latin American countries and seeks to identify which countries have chosen monistic or dualistic regulations for the regulation of domestic and international arbitration. Additionally, it describes the institutions of domestic arbitration legislation that are far different from international practice and emphasizes on Colombian legislation.