Abstract Monkey mortality in Costa Rica is due, in most cases, to anthropogenic factors, such as deforestation, forest fragmentation, lack of tree connectivity, and tourism development in most coastal areas. The latter factor has caused the death of at least 450 monkeys per year due to electrocution, as a result of the increase in electrical wiring that has arisen in the different regions with urban development. Faced with this threat, proposals have been developed to avoid the danger, such as the construction of appropriate passage infrastructure for monkeys, the placement of insulated wiring, and the protection of electrical transformers. Using the morphometric measurements of the four species of monkeys native to Costa Rica (Alouatta palliata, Ateles geoffroyi, Saimiri oerstedii, and Cebus imitator), a model of safe and functional aerial passages or bridges for them was designed, the foundations of which are discussed in this article.

Resumen La mortalidad de los monos en Costa Rica se debe, en la mayoría de los casos, a factores antropogénicos, como la deforestación, la fragmentación de los bosques, la falta de conectividad arbórea y el desarrollo turístico en la mayoría de las zonas costeras. Este último factor ha provocado la muerte de al menos 450 monos por año debido a la electrocución, a raíz del aumento del cableado eléctrico que ha surgido en las diferentes regiones con desarrollo urbanístico. Ante esta amenaza se han elaborado propuestas para evitar el peligro, como la construcción de infraestructura de paso apropiada para los monos, la colocación de cableado aislado y la protección de los transformadores eléctricos. Utilizando las medidas morfométricas de las cuatro especies de monos nativas de Costa Rica (Alouatta palliata, Ateles geoffroyi, Saimiri oerstedii y Cebus imitator), se diseñó un modelo de pasos aéreos o puentes seguros y funcionales para ellos, cuyos fundamentos se discuten en el presente artículo.

Resumen La evaluación de vulnerabilidad de la especie de mono congo (Alouatta palliata palliata) en Playa Hermosa, Guanacaste, Costa Rica fue posible mediante la aplicación de un Índice de Vulnerabilidad (IV) que integra los 4 ejes del Desarrollo Sostenible. Se encontró que la vulnerabilidad para esta especie es alta (63%). Principalmente en los criterios económicos y político-institucionales, mientras que el social y ambiental aportan en un 50% (S (14%) + A (15%) + E (17%) + PI (17%) = IV (63%)). De esta manera las líneas de acción deben enfocarse en implementación de políticas y planes de manejo que incorporen al mono congo como una especie focal e intervención infraestructura presente en su hábitat, como lo son líneas eléctricas y carreteras.

Abstract The vulnerability assessment of the species of howler monkey (Alouatta palliata palliata) in Playa Hermosa, Guanacaste, Costa Rica was possible through the application of a Vulnerability Index (VI) that integrates the 4 axes of Sustainable Development. Vulnerability for this species was found to be high (63%). Mainly in the economic and political-institutional criteria, while the social and environmental contribute 50% (S (14%) + A (15%) + E (17%) + PI (17%) = IV (63%)). In this way, the lines of action should focus on the implementation of policies and management plans that incorporate the howler monkey as a focal species and infrastructure intervention present in its habitat, such as power lines and roads.

Resumen Introducción: Los patrones hematológicos de la vida silvestre son fundamentales para el monitoreo de la salud y permiten dilucidar las variaciones tanto dentro como entre poblaciones. Entre estos, los parámetros hematológicos son particularmente valiosos para evaluar el estado de salud de las especies de primates neotropicales en la naturaleza. Objetivo: Definir valores de referencia hematológicos para dos especies de monos en Costa Rica. Métodos: Durante el 2014 recolectamos muestras de sangre de monos aulladores de manto, Alouatta palliata (17 hembras, 18 machos) y monos capuchinos cariblancos, Cebus imitador (5 hembras, 7 machos) en siete localidades de la costa Pacífica de Costa Rica. Resultados: Para ambas especies, los valores hematológicos fueron mayores en los machos, y las poblaciones de monos aulladores difirieron significativamente con excepción de las plaquetas. Conclusiones: Estos valores hematológicos, que difieren según el sexo y la localidad, ayudarán a evaluar el estado de salud de estas poblaciones de primates neotropicales.

Abstract Introduction: Wildlife hematological patterns are fundamental for health monitoring, and allows elucidating variations both within and between populations. Among these, hematological parameters are particularly valuable to evaluate the health status of neotropical primate species in the wild. Objective: To define hematological reference values for two species of monkeys in Costa Rica. Methods: During 2014, we collected blood samples from free-ranging mantled howler monkeys, Alouatta palliata (17 females, 18 males) and white-faced capuchin monkeys, Cebus imitator (5 females, 7 males) in seven localities of the Costa Rican Pacific coast. Results: For both species, the hematological values were higher in males, and howler monkey populations differed significantly except for platelets. Conclusions: These hematological values, which differ by sex and locality, will help evaluate the health status of these neotropical primate populations.

RESUMEN Los estudios de citogenética en Primates Neotropicales (Primates: Platyrrhini) han demostrado que estos mamíferos comprenden un grupo heterogéneo a nivel cromosómico. La notable variedad de cariotipos descriptos provee evidencia significativa sobre el posible papel de los reordenamientos cromosómicos en su evolución. En el Grupo de Investigación en Biología Evolutiva (GIBE), la línea de investigación sobre el proceso de divergencia evolutiva en Platyrrhini considerando distintos aspectos de la organización del genoma se ha establecido y desarrollado de manera ininterrumpida desde hace más de 30 años. Entre los avances realizados en los últimos años se encuentra la cuantificación del tamaño del genoma en seis especies de monos caí (Cebus sp.) y dos especies de monos aulladores (Alouatta sp.) y la descripción de la composición de pares de bases en las regiones de heterocromatina constitutiva en los géneros Cebus y Ateles. Se concretaron las primeras descripciones del cariotipo y comportamiento meiótico en profase I temprana de dos especies de monos aulladores, Alouatta caraya y A. guariba clamitans. En esta última especie se identificó el primer sistema sexual de tipo pentavalente X1X2X3Y1Y2 en una especie de primate. Se caracterizó la organización de la eucromatina en términos del contenido y distribución de bases nucleotídicas AT y GC en tres especies de aulladores y en dos especies de monos caí. Estas investigaciones, entre otras, permitieron contribuir de forma original al conocimiento sobre la especiación en distintos niveles, así como sobre la arquitectura y dinámica del genoma de estos primates.

ABSTRACT Cytogenetics studies in Neotropical Primates (Primates: Platyrrhini) have shown that these mammals comprise a heterogeneous group at the chromosomal level. The remarkable variety of karyotypes described provides significant evidence on the possible role of chromosomal rearrangements in their evolution. In the Grupo de Investigación en Biología Evolutiva (GIBE), the line of research on the evolutionary divergence process in Platyrrhini considering different aspects of the organization of the genome has been established and developed uninterruptedly for more than 30 years. Among the advances made in recent years is the quantification of the genome size in six species of caí monkeys (Cebus sp.) and two species of howler monkeys (Alouatta sp.) and the description of the composition of base pairs in the constitutive heterochromatin regions in the genera Cebus and Ateles. The first descriptions were made of the karyotype and meiotic behavior in early prophase I of two species of howler monkeys, Alouatta caraya and A. guariba clamitans. In this last species, the first pentavalent-type sexual system X1X2X3Y1Y2 was identified in a primate species. The organization of euchromatin was characterized in terms of the content and distribution of AT and GC nucleotide bases in three species of howlers and in two species of caí monkeys. These, among other investigations, allowed contributing in an original way to the knowledge about speciation at different levels, as well as about the architecture and dynamics of the genome of these primates.

RESUMO A pineal é uma glândula neuroendócrina responsável pela síntese e liberação de melatonina. Está presente no encéfalo dos vertebrados, mas sua morfologia e localização variam consideravelmente entre as espécies. Para a espécie Alouatta belzebul, apesar de terem sido descritos alguns aspectos anatômicos do sistema nervoso, não há informações sobre a morfologia e composição histológica desta glândula. Assim, o presente estudo teve como objetivo descrever os aspectos morfológicos, morfométricos e histológicos da pineal de Alouatta belzebul. Foram dissecados sete encéfalos de espécimes adultos dos quais se descreveu a localização da glândula em relação às estruturas encefálicas circunvizinhas e foram realizadas medidas de comprimento e largura da mesma. Em seguida foram preparadas lâminas histológicas e coradas pelas técnicas de hematoxilina-eosina e PAS. Observou-se que a pineal de Alouatta belzebul localiza-se superior e cranialmente ao cerebelo, superior aos colículos superiores e abaixo do esplênio do corpo caloso e foi classificada como subcalosa. Apresentou comprimento médio de 2,6mm e largura média de 1,14mm. Histologicamente a glândula é composta por cordões irregulares de pinealócitos e gliócitos. Os pinealócitos apresentaram pigmentos semelhante à melanina.

ABSTRACT The pineal is a neuroendocrine gland responsible for the synthesis and release of melatonin. It is present in the brain of vertebrates, but its morphology and location vary considerably among species. For the species Alouatta belzebul, although some anatomical aspects of the nervous system have been described, there is no information on the morphology and histological composition of this gland. Thus, the present study aimed to describe the morphological, morphometric, and histological aspects of the pineal of Alouatta belzebul. Seven adult specimens were dissected from which the location of the gland in relation to the surrounding brain structures was described, and its length and width were measured. Histological slides were then prepared and stained using hematoxylin-eosin and PAS techniques. It was observed that the pineal of Alouatta belzebul is located superior and cranial to the cerebellum, superior to the superior colliculi and below the splenium of the corpus callosum and was classified as sub-callosal. It had an average length of 2.6mm and an average width of 1.14mm. Histologically the gland is composed of irregular strands of pinealocytes and gliocytes. The pinealocytes showed pigments similar to melanin.

ABSTRACT There are few studies describing the eating habits of non-human primates (NHPs) that provide information related to the use of food resources of the ecosystem in the Amazon Forest. The objectives of the study were (1) to determine the composition of the diet of six species of NHPs and (2) to evaluate the amplitude and diversity of their diets from the evaluation of the gastric contents of animals hunted for subsistence purposes by inhabitants of three areas of the northern Peruvian Amazon between 2012-2015. Samples of 82 primates of the species Lagothrix poeppigii (n = 30), Sapajus macrocephalus (n = 23), Pithecia monachus (n = 11), Cacajao calvus (n = 8), Cebus albifrons (n = 6) and Alouatta seniculus (n = 4). The NHPs diet consisted of a high variety of fruits, including 133 types of seeds and 39 types of arthropods. The amplitude of the niche according to the Levin Index and the Simpson Diversity Index indicate that L. poeppigii is the most generalist species in terms of fruits and arthropods, followed by C. calvus with arthropods and by S. macrocephalus in the use of fruits. On the contrary, Cebus albifrons is the most specialized species when it comes to fruits and P. monachus when it comes to arthropods.

RESUMEN Se dispone de escasos estudios que describan los hábitos alimenticios de los primates no humanos (PNH) que permiten conocer el uso de los recursos alimenticios del ecosistema en el bosque amazónico. El estudio tuvo como objetivos (1) determinar la composición de la dieta de seis especies de PNH y (2) evaluar la amplitud y diversidad de sus dietas a partir de la evaluación de los contenidos gástricos de animales cazados con fines de subsistencia por pobladores de tres áreas del norte de la Amazonía peruana entre 2012-2015. Se trabajó con muestras de 82 primates de las especies Lagothrix poeppigii (n=30), Sapajus macrocephalus (n=23), Pithecia monachus (n=11), Cacajao calvus (n=8), Cebus albifrons (n=6) y Alouatta seniculus (n=4). La dieta de los PNH estuvo constitui- da por una alta variedad de frutos, entre ellos por 133 tipos de semillas y 39 tipos de artrópodos. La amplitud del nicho según el Índice de Levin y el Índice de Diversidad de Simpson indican que L. poeppigii es la especie más generalista en lo referente a frutos y artrópodos. Por el contrario, Cebus albifrons es la especie más especialista en lo que se refiere a frutos y P. monachus cuando se trata de artrópodos.

Resumo Os núcleos da base são corpos de neurônios, bem delimitados e com funções específicas, localizados no interior do centro medular branco do cérebro, envolvidos diretamente com o sistema motor, através de uma função moduladora dos movimentos, participando sobremaneira nos processos de planejamento e controle dos movimentos. Os estudos sobre estes núcleos em primatas são reduzidos e na espécie Alouatta belzebul, inexistente. O objetivo do presente estudo foi descrever a morfologia dos núcleos da base do encéfalo de Alouatta belzebul. Para tanto, foram utilizados dez encéfalos de Alouatta belzebul, machos e fêmeas, onde após a remoção e corte coronal do cérebro, realizou-se à técnica de Mayland para evidenciar os núcleos da base. Verificou-se a presença do núcleo caudado, núcleo lentiforme (este formado pelo putâmen, globo pálido medial e globo pálido lateral), claustro e substância negra, que, funcionalmente, estão relacionados com o controle motor. A substância negra faz parte do mesencéfalo e está ainda relacionada com a aprendizagem decorrentes dos efeitos da dopamina, responsável por ativar o sistema de recompensa e vício no telencéfalo e tem ainda, relação com o núcleo rubro que também é um núcleo do mesencéfalo. Em Alouatta belzebul o núcleo rubro está presente. Verificou-se na literatura que a degeneração de células da substância negra pode ocasionar a doença de Parkinson em Macaca fasciculares, e pelo fato do Alouatta belzebul apresentar as mesmas estruturas anatômicas dos núcleos da base do mesencéfalo de Macaca fasciculares, poderia ser utilizado como modelo experimental em estudos clínicos para a doença de Parkinson.

Abstract The basal nuclei are well-defined bodies of neurons with specific functions, located inside the white medullary center of the brain, directly involved with the motor system, participating greatly in the planning and control processes of movements. Studies on these nuclei in non-human primates are small and in the Alouatta belzebul species, nonexistent. The aim of the present study was to describe the morphology of the nuclei at the base of the brain of Alouatta belzebul. Ten male and female Alouatta belzebul brains were used, where after removal and coronal cut of the brain, the Mayland technique was performed to show the basal nuclei. There was the presence of the caudate nucleus, lentiform nucleus (this formed by the putamen, medial globus pallidus and lateral globus pallidus), claustrum and substantia nigra, which, functionally, are related to motor control. The substantia nigra is part of the midbrain and is also related to learning resulting from the effects of dopamine, responsible for activating the reward and addiction system in the telbrain and is also related to the red nucleus, which is also a midbrain nucleus. In Alouatta belzebul the red nucleus is present. It was found in the literature that degeneration of substantia nigra cells can cause Parkinson's disease in Macaca fasciculares, and because Alouatta belzebul has the same anatomical structures in the basal nuclei of the base of Macaca fasciculares, it is suggested that studies of functional evaluation of these structures should be carried out to verify whether Alouatta belzebul can be used as an experimental model for Parkinson's disease.

Abstract The seasonal forest formations of the Atlantic Forest are a threatened and poorly known habitat. We present here a list of the non-volant mammals occurring in a 515-ha forest fragment known as Santa Maria and located in the Brazilian state of São Paulo. Our surveys are based on live trap captures, camera traps, and active searches for footprints, as well as secondary data. We list 29 species of non-volant mammals in the fragment, recorded between 1996 and 2021. One species found in the fragment, Leontopithecus chrysopygus, is globally endangered. Two species are classified as “vulnerable” in the global red list: Myrmecophaga tridactyla, and Tapirus terresris. One species, Panthera onca, is classified as “critically endangered” in São Paulo state. The red howler, Alouatta guariba, was not recorded after 1999 and has probably been extirpated in the fragment. We show that the number of non-volant mammal species in Santa Maria fragment is high, in relation to its size. The fragment is also in a strategic position, between the Morro do Diabo state park and the Black Lion Tamarin Ecological station, the two largest protected areas in the region. Considering its high mammal richness and its possible role as stepping stone for the local fauna, we recommend that the fragment become a protected area.

RESUMEN El PNN Selva de Florencia, en los Andes centrales de Colombia, es reservorio de una amplia biodiversidad entre ellas cinco especies de primates. A pesar de ser un área protegida, en su interior existen procesos de transformación antrópica, que influyen directamente en sus ecosistemas. Actualmente, no se cuenta con modelos cuantitativos que nos permitan estimar el efecto de esas transformaciones sobre las poblaciones de primates. Evaluamos la proporción de área usada (ψ), como estimativo de la abundancia de los primates Ateles hybridus, Alouatta seniculus y Cebus versicolor. Se realizaron muestreos en 31 cuadrantes de 1 km2 seleccionados al azar, donde se evaluó: i) presencia de primates; ii) presencia de humanos; así como, el porcentaje de iii) cultivos; iv) pastos; y v) cobertura natural, a partir un mapa de coberturas Corine Land Cover adaptado para Colombia a una escala 1:25 000. Los datos fueron analizados bajo abordaje bayesiano. Para A. hybridus se encontró un ψ de 0,16 y una probabilidad de detección de 0,14, disminuyendo el uso de área en bosques. Para A. seniculus, la ψ fue 0,83 y la probabilidad de detección de 0,14 disminuyendo el uso de área en cultivos. Para C. versicolor se estimó una ψ de 0,36 y una probabilidad de detección de 0,08, disminuyendo el uso de área en presencia de humanos. Los datos aquí presentados son un insumo para el diseño e implementación de un monitoreo efectivo en esta área protegida.

ABSTRACT The PNN Selva de Florencia, in the central Andes of Colombia, is reservoir of a large biodiversity including five species of primates. Despite being a protected area, there are anthropic transformation processes that directly affect their ecosystems. Currently, we do not have quantitative models that allow us to estimate the effect of these transformations on primate populations. We evaluated the proportion of the area used (ψ), as an abundance estimation of the primates Ateles hybridus, Alouatta seniculus, and Cebus versicolor. Our methods included random sampling in 31 plots of 1 km2, where we evaluated i) primate presence; ii) human presence; as well as the percentage of: iii) plantations; iv) pastures; and v) natural coverage, using a 1:25 000 Corine Land Cover map, adapted to Colombia. We followed a Bayesian approach to analyze our dataset. We report a ψ of 0.16, and 0.14 detection probability for A. hybridus, with a decreasing area use in forest; a ψ of 0.83, and detection probability of 0.14 for A. seniculus, with a decreasing area use in plantations; finally, we estimated a ψ of 0.36, and 0.08 detection probability for C. versicolor, with a decreasing area use in plots with human presence. Data in our work can be used as input for the design and implementation of effective monitoring in this protected area.

RESUMEN Las dinámicas poblacionales y de las comunidades son afectadas por los disturbios en los paisajes locales, y las respuestas de cada especie a esos cambios podrían afectar diferencialmente su sobrevivencia. La cobertura vegetal natural en el valle del río Magdalena en Colombia ha sido reducida casi en un 70 % y está fragmentada. En este paisaje habitan en poblaciones reducidas y aisladas Alouatta seniculus, Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor y Saguinus leucopus. Para evaluar el efecto de la fragmentación sobre estas especies se evaluó la relación de la altitud, métricas de paisaje y clase, y estructura y diversidad de plantas con la densidad poblacional de los cuatro primates en 20 localidades. Adicionalmente, se evaluó la relación entre la densidad de A. hybridus, asumiéndolo como mejor competidor, con la de los otros primates. El índice medio de forma fue la variable más relacionada con la densidad y afectó positivamente a A. hybridus, C. versicolor y S. leucopus y negativamente a A. seniculus. El índice ponderado de coberturas fue la segunda, los cuatro primates incrementan la densidad cuando más madura es la cobertura vegetal. El diámetro a la altura del pecho estuvo relacionado positivamente con la densidad de A. hybridus y C. versicolor, negativamente con A. seniculus y no tuvo efecto para S. leucopus. La densidad de árboles estuvo relacionada negativamente con la densidad de A. seniculus y positivamente con la de S. leucopus. La densidad de A. hybridus resultó relacionada con la de los otros primates, positivamente con A. seniculus y negativamente con las otras dos especies.

ABSTRACT Population and community dynamics are affected by local landscape disturbances, and the answer of each species to these changes could differentially affect species survival. Natural land cover in the Magdalena River valley, Colombia, has been reduced by almost 70 % and fragmented. There inhabit isolated and reduced populations of Alouatta seniculus, Ateles hybridus, Cebus versicolor, and Sagui-nus leucopus (Primates). To understand the effect of fragmentation over these species, the relationship between altitude, landscape and class metrics, and plant structure and diversity with the population density of these four primates in 20 localities were assessed. Additionally, the relationship between the density of A. hybridus, assumed as a better competitor, and the density of the other primates was assessed. Mean shape index was the most related variable and affected positively the density of A. hybridus, C. versicolor, and S. leucopus and negatively that of A. seniculus. Weight class index was the second more important variable, the four primates increased their density where more mature is the plant cover. Diameter at breast height was positively related with the density of A. hybridus and C. versicolor, negatively related for A. seniculus and not related to S. leucopus density. Tree density was related negatively with the density of A. seniculus and positively with S. leucopus. A. hybridus was related to the density of the other primates, positively to A. seniculus and negatively to the other two species.

RESUMO Nas últimas décadas, no estado do Mato Grosso do Sul - Brasil, a redução de áreas preservadas pela degradação de biomas e pela destruição de habitat naturais tem favorecido a aproximação de animais - muitos desses, primatas não humanos - em cidades e rodovias, aumentando o número de acidentes e, em alguns casos, de mortes. Novas técnicas cirúrgicas têm sido desenvolvidas, favorecendo essas espécies, como reportado neste trabalho. O paciente macaco bugio foi traumatizado em região facial, envolvendo importantes estruturas vitais, como grupos musculares faciais responsáveis pela apreensão alimentar, mastigação, respiração, defesa e comunicação (vocalização e mímicas), além das estruturas cartilaginosas nasais. No entanto, técnicas cirúrgicas reconstrutivas em face aplicadas e descritas em humanos apresentaram resultados satisfatórios dos pontos de vista anatômico, fisiológico e visual nos macacos bugio, com aceitação deles diante do estresse, com pós-operatório seguro, resultando na reabilitação do paciente primata.

ABSTRACT In the last decades in the State of Mato Grosso do Sul - Brazil, the reduction in the preservation of areas due to the degradation of the biome and destruction of the natural environment has caused animals, mainly in the order of non-human primates, to come closer to towns and highways, increasing the number of accidents and in some cases, deaths. New surgical techniques have been developed that favor these species as explained in this report. The howler monkey patient was traumatized in the facial region damaging important vital structures such as facial muscle groups responsible for swallowing food, chewing, breathing, defense, and communication (vocalization and mimicry), in addition to the cartilaginous nasal structures. However, reconstructive facial surgical techniques, used on humans, showed satisfactory results from an anatomical, functional, and aesthetic point of view in howler monkey, with acceptance of the animal with a safe postoperative period for a full recovery of the primate patient.

RESUMO: O bugio ruivo (Alouatta guariba clamitans) é uma espécie de primata amplamente distribuída na América do Sul. As infecções por protozoários são comuns em primatas. Entretanto, estudos sobre protozoários em primatas no Brasil são escassos, portanto o objetivo deste estudo foi pesquisar DNA dos protozoários Apicomplexa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystisspp. e Toxoplasma gondii em tecidos de A. guariba clamitans. A extração de DNA foi realizada em amostras de tecido do coração, cérebro, fígado, baço, pulmão e intestino de seis A. guariba clamitans oriundos de Santa Maria, Região Central do Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Foi realizada PCR convencional utilizando primers geral do gene 18S rRNA para Apicomplexa e também primers específicos para amplificação de DNA de Neospora spp.e Toxoplasma gondii. Todos os animais foram positivos no PCR geral para Apicomplexa e no sequenciamento genético confirmou-se a presença de DNA de Sarcocystis nos tecidos de quatro animais pertencentes a pelo menos duas espécies (S. neurona e S. gigantea), e DNA de T. gondii foi detectado nos outros dois animais. Uma amostra positiva para T. gondii foi caracterizada genotipicamente como atípico pela técnica de polimorfismo do comprimento do fragmento de restrição. Não foi detectado DNA de N. caninum nas amostras testadas. A presença de DNA de protozoários apicomplexa nos tecidos dos seis animais testados neste estudo destaca a importância dos bugios ruivos como mantenedores desses patógenos na natureza.

ABSTRACT: The brown howler monkey (Alouatta guariba clamitans) is a primate species widely distributed in South America. Infections by protozoa are common in primates. However, studies on protozoa in primates in Brazil are scarce, so the goal of this study was to investigate DNA from the apicomplexan protozoa Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis spp. and Toxoplasma gondii in tissues of A. guariba clamitans. DNA extraction was performed on tissue samples from the heart, brain, liver, spleen, lung and intestine of six A. guariba clamitans from Santa Maria, Central Region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Conventional PCR was performed using 18S rRNA gene general primers for Apicomplexa and also specific primers to amplify Neosporaspp. and Toxoplasma gondii DNA. All animals were positive in the 18S PCR and the genetic sequencing confirmed the presence of Sarcocystis spp. DNA in the tissues of four animals belonging to at least two species (S. neurona and S. gigantea) and T. gondii DNA in the other two animals. One positive sample for T. gondii was genotypically characterized as atypical by the restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. N. caninum DNA was not detected in the tested samples. The presence of Apicomplexa protozoan DNA in the tissues of the six animals tested in this study highlights the importance of howler monkeys as maintainers of these pathogens in nature.

RESUMEN Existe una creciente evidencia de que la sociabilidad en primates no humanos está relacionada con mecanismos neuroendocrinos. La arginina vasopresina, las endorfinas y la oxitocina pueden estar involucradas en tales mecanismos. Aquí, realizamos un análisis preliminar de los correlatos sociales de la variación en las concentraciones de oxitocina urinaria en monos aulladores de manto (Alouatta palliata). De enero a diciembre de 2017, estudiamos 13 monos aulladores de manto adultos pertenecientes a dos grupos. Registramos la ocurrencia de interacciones sociales (547.5 horas de observación); evaluamos la proximidad entre los miembros del grupo (2.194 registros instantáneos); y recolectamos 172 muestras de orina. Analizamos las muestras de orina (ELISA) para determinar las concentraciones de oxitocina, las cuales corregimos por la gravedad específica, lo que resultó en 54 muestras analizadas. Con respecto a cuando no ocurrieron interacciones afiliativas, las concentraciones de oxitocina aumentaron aproximadamente un 62% cuando los individuos participaron en interacciones afiliativas, y las concentraciones de oxitocina fueron mayores cuando díadas con una relación social de baja calidad se afiliaron. Estos resultados convergen con propuestas previas de que la oxitocina está vinculada a la participación en interacciones afiliativas. La convergencia entre estos resultados y los reportados para otros taxa apoya la hipótesis de que los mecanismos biológicos que permiten la sociabilidad de los primates se comparten entre las especies.

ABSTRACT There is growing evidence that non-human primate sociality is linked to proximate neuroendocrine mechanisms. Arginine vasopressin, endorphins, and oxytocin may be involved in such mechanisms. Here, we perform a preliminary analysis of the social correlates of variation in urinary oxytocin concentrations in mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata). From January to December 2017, we studied 13 adult mantled howler monkeys belonging to two groups. We recorded the occurrence of social interactions (547.5 observation hours); assessed proximity among group members (2,194 instantaneous recordings); and collected 172 urine samples. Urine samples were assayed (ELISA) for oxytocin concentrations, which were corrected for specific gravity, resulting in 54 analyzed samples. Hormone concentrations increased by approximately 62% when individuals were involved in affiliative interactions. With respect to when no affiliative interactions occurred, urinary oxytocin concentrations were higher when dyads with a low-quality social relationship affiliated. These results agree with previous contentions that this hormone is linked to participation in affiliative interactions. Convergence between these and results from other taxa supports the hypothesis that the biological mechanisms that allow for primate sociality are shared among species.

Abstract The northeast of the Argentinean Chaco Park constitutes the main habitat of the black and golden howler monkey, Alouatta caraya, and has the highest deforestation rate of the country, in the period 2007-2018 there was an annual loss of 7% in this region that corresponds to approximately 2,600,000 ha. We evaluate landscape attributes that can influence the use of forest patches and the demographic characteristics of A. caraya in a rural area of the Argentinean Chaco. We conducted monthly censuses from June 2017 to November 2018, and used geomatics tools and geographic data to perform spatial analyzes. The forest patches area was the only attribute positively related to their occupation by the howlers (p = 0.007). The mean group size (5.6 ± 2.13 individuals) did not vary between large and small patches but the immature: adult female ratio of the groups was higher in the large patches (p = 0.024). This study provides evidence of the value of geomatic tools to assess landscape attributes that influence habitat occupancy in the primates from Argentina, contributing to the understanding of the important requirements to design conservation strategies.

Resumen El noreste del Parque Chaqueño argentino constituye el principal hábitat del mono aullador negro y dorado, Alouatta caraya, y presenta la mayor tasa de deforestación del país, en el período 2007-2018, hubo 7% de pérdida anual en esta región que corresponde a aproximadamente 2,600,000 ha. Evaluamos los atributos del paisaje que pueden influenciar la ocupación de parches de bosque y características demográficas de A. caraya en un área rural del Chaco argentino. Realizamos censos mensuales en el período junio 2017-noviembre 2018 y utilizamos herramientas de geomática e información geográfica para realizar análisis espaciales. El área de los parches de bosque fue el único atributo que se relacionó positivamente con la ocupación de los mismos por parte de los aulladores (p = 0.007). El tamaño medio de los grupos (5.6 ± 2.13 individuos) no varió entre parches grandes y pequeños, pero la relación inmaduro: hembra adulta de los grupos fue mayor en los parches grandes (p = 0.024). Este estudio brinda evidencias del valor de las herramientas de geomática para evaluar los atributos del paisaje que influyen en la ocupación del hábitat en los primates de Argentina, contribuyendo a la comprensión de los requisitos indispensables para diseñar estrategias de conservación.

RESUMO O conhecimento da anatomia de qualquer animal silvestre é de fundamental importância para sua preservação e proteção. Neste contexto, o presente estudo objetivou descrever a morfologia do sistema reprodutor feminino de Alouatta belzebul. Foram utilizados seis espécimes de A. belzebul, fêmeas, adultas, e livres de lesões. Observou-se macroscopicamente que os ovários têm características morfológicas em formato ovoides, com superfície lisa, e, na análise histológica na região de córtex, evidenciou-se folículos ovarianos em diferentes estágios de desenvolvimento. As tubas uterinas anatomicamente são finas e curvilíneas, apresentando uma camada mucosa, uma muscular e outra serosa. O útero possui formato simples, com fundo globoso, com um miométrio altamente vascularizado, sendo organizado em feixes de fibras musculares lisas. A estrutura anatômica da vagina apresentou-se como um tubo muscular longo de paredes finas, onde, na região vestibular, o óstio externo da uretra é marcado por uma papila uretral bilobada e, na região de vulva, em sua porção caudal, contatou-se um clitóris bem desenvolvido. No que concerne à análise histológica da vagina, verificou-se, em região de mucosa vaginal, um extrato basal composto por epitélio estratificado pavimentoso não queratinizado atrófico. As descrições morfológicas fornecem, de forma inédita, informações importantes relativas à anatomia macroscópica e microscópica do sistema reprodutor feminino dessa espécie.

ABSTRACT Knowledge of the anatomy of any wild animal is of fundamental importance for its preservation and protection. In this context the present study aimed to describe the morphology of the female reproductive system of A. belzebul. We used 6 specimens of A. belzebul, female, adult and free of lesions. It was macroscopically observed that the ovaries are ovoid with smooth surface and the histological analysis in cortical region showed ovarian follicles in different stages of development. The fallopian tubes are anatomically thin and curvilinear, with one mucous layer, one muscular and one serous layer. The uterus was presented in a simple format with a globular fundus, with a highly vascularized myometrium, being organized in bundles of smooth muscle fibers. The anatomical structure of the vagina presented itself as a long thin-walled muscular tube where in the vestibular region the external orifice of the urethra is marked by a bilobed urethral papilla and in the caudal portion in its caudal portion a well-developed clitoris. Regarding the histological analysis of the vagina, a basal extract composed of atrophic non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium was found in the vaginal mucosa region. The morphological descriptions provide important information regarding the macroscopic and microscopic anatomy of the female reproductive system of this species in an unprecedented way.