Diversos estudios en modelos de ratones han demostrado que la inmunidad protectora frente a Leishmania es mediada por linfocitos T, células presentadoras de antígeno y citocinas. Sin embargo, pocos estudios se han realizado para evaluar citocinas en perros infectados en forma natural con Leishmania infantum/chagasi. El perro doméstico es el principal reservorio del parásito, en tal sentido, el objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar las citocinas en suero de 33 perros con Leishmaniasis Visceral Canina (LVC), provenientes del estado Nueva Esparta, Venezuela (foco endémico). Los perros fueron clasificados en sintomáticos o asintomáticos, de acuerdo al análisis de los signos clínicos de la enfermedad, coincidentes con los títulos de anticuerpos contra las kinesinas recombinantes de Leishmania rK39 y rK26. Otros dos grupos incluyeron: 10 perros de la misma zona endémica como grupo control endémico (CE) y 10 perros de la zona no endémica como control sano (CS). Las concentraciones (pg/mL) de las citocinas solubles IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, IL-4 e IL-2 se determinaron por citometría de flujo (Kit CBA Hu Th1/Th2, BD TM). Los resultados mostraron concentraciones estadísticamente mayores (p<0,05) de IFN-γ (69,93±7,46), IL-4 (7,51±2,68), TNF-α (3,86±1,46) e IL-2 (39,85±3,84) en el grupo de perros asintomáticos, con respecto a los perros sintomáticos (60,8±10,6; 5,28±0,80; 2,76±0,72 y 36,04±3,61, respectivamente) y los perros sanos (51±14; 4,65±0,2; 3,21±0,89 y 32,65±5,86, respectivamente). Los perros asintomáticos también presentaron mayor concentración de IL-6 (4,9±0,55) que los CS (4,02±0,64) (p<0,01). Estos resultados demuestran que los perros en estado asintomático exhiben mayor proporción de citocinas de activación celular y proinflamatorias. Los resultados señalan a la medición de citocinas séricas como reflejo del estado inmunológico de los caninos en futuros estudios orientados a vacunación o terapia.

Different experimental murine models have shown that protective immunity against Lesihmania depends upon T cells, cytokines, and antigen presenting cells. However, the role of cytokines in naturally-infected hosts like domestic dogs is controversial. Few studies have evaluated cytokines in dogs naturally-infected with Leishmania infantum/chagasi. Since the domestic dog is the main reservoir of the parasite, a study was conducted to determine cytokines in serum of 33 dogs with Canine Visceral Lesihmaniasis from endemic areas of the State of Nueva Esparta, Venezuela. Dogs were classified as symptomatic (SD) and asymptomatic (AD), according to the expression of three or more clinical signs and levels of  antibodies for rK39 and rK26. Ten non-infected, rK39 negative controls were included from an endemic area (EA) and ten dogs from a non-endemic area were used as healthy controls (HC). The following cytokines (pg/mL) were measured in serum by flow cytometry (CBA Hu Th1/Th 2, BD TM kit): IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-10, IL-6, IL-4 and IL-2. Results show a higher  concentration (P<0.05) of  IFN-γ (69.93±7.46), IL-4 (7.51±2.68), TNF-α (3.86±1.46), and IL-2 (39.85±3.84) in AD when compared with SD (60.8±10.6; 5.28±0.80; 2.76± 0.72; and 36.04±3.61, respectively); and HC (51±14; 4.65±0.2; 3.21±0.89, and 32.65±5.86, respectively). The AD also showed higher levels (P<0.01) of IL-6 (4.9±0.55) compared with HC (4.02±0.64). Results show that AD exhibit a higher proportion of cellular activation and proinflammatory cytokines. Results indicate that measuring of serum cytokines could reflect the immunological status in dogs in future clinical trials oriented to either vaccination or therapy.

Introducción. La leishmaniasis visceral constituye un problema de salud pública en los países en donde es endémica por ser potencialmente letal, principalmente en niños. El diagnóstico rápido es importante en el control de la enfermedad. Objetivo. Comparar las pruebas inmunocromatográficas rK39 (rK39 dipstick, Kalazar detect test, Inbios Internacional Inc.), ELISA rK26 y la prueba de aglutinación directa (Kit Biomedical Research) en relación con la prueba de ELISA rK39, como herramientas serodiagnósticas para la leishmaniasis visceral en Venezuela. Materiales y métodos. Se estudiaron 50 muestras séricas de pacientes positivos por la prueba ELISA rK39, provenientes de diferentes zonas endémicas: Nueva Esparta, Lara, Anzoátegui y Trujillo; se incluyeron 17 muestras de voluntarios sanos y 25 de pacientes con otras enfermedades. Se utilizó la prueba ELISA rK39 como método de referencia, considerándola como patrón de referencia imperfecto, a partir del cual se determinaron los valores de sensibilidad, especificidad, razón de verosimilitud y valores diagnóstico positivo y negativo en las demás pruebas evaluadas. Resultados. Todas las pruebas mostraron una fuerte correlación (p<0,0001) con la ELISA rK39. La aglutinación directa y la prueba inmunocromatográfica rK39 presentaron altos valores de sensibilidad, 89,74% (IC95% 81,34-98,15) y 94,15% (IC95% 87,65-100), respectivamente, y de especificidad, 81% (IC95% 79,96-99,51) y 100% (IC95% 100-100). La prueba ELISA rK26, a pesar de poseer buena especificidad, 99% (IC95% 95,17-100), tuvo baja sensibilidad, 37% (IC95% 23,41-50,15). Conclusión. Las pruebas de aglutinación directa y la prueba inmunocromatográfica rK39 presentaron los mayores valores de sensibilidad y especificidad. Ambas son simples, económicas y fácilmente aplicables. Por ello, son recomendables para efectuar un diagnóstico de leishmaniasis visceral eficaz y precoz en Venezuela.

Introduction. Human visceral leishmaniasis is a serious public health problem in endemic countries because of its high potential lethality, particularly in children. Rapid diagnosis is essential to early treatment and control of visceral leishmaniasis. Objective. The aim was to compare three serodiagnostic tools for human visceral leishmaniasis. Materials and methods. Three methods were compared: the rK39 dipstick (Kalazar detection test, Inbios International Inc.), ELISA rK26 and direct agglutination test (DAT) (KIT Biomedical Research). Fifty serum samples from patients positive for rK39 ELISA were compared from four endemic provinces in Venezuela: Nueva Esparta (Margarita island), Lara, Anzoátegui and Trujillo. Additional serum samples from 17 healthy volunteers and 25 patients with other diseases were included. The rK39 ELISA served as the baseline standard method. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and likelihood ratio were calculated for each test. Results. All methods had a positive correlation with rK39 ELISA (p<0.0001). They showed high sensitivity and specificity. The direct agglutination test and the rK39 dipstick showed high sensitivity values, 89.7% (95% CI: 81.34.0-98.2%) and 94.2% (95% CI: 87.7-100%), respectively, and high specificity, 81.0% (95% CI: 80.0-99.5%) and 100%. The rK26 ELISA showed good specificity, 99% (95% CI: 95.2-100%), but a very low sensitivity, 37% (95% CI: 23.4-50.2%). Conclusion. Overall results indicated that DAT and rK39 dipstick have the highest specificity and sensitivity. Both are simple, cost-effective and field applicable tests. Therefore, they are recommended for early and accurate diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis.

Introduction. Visceral leishmaniasis is the most severe clinical form of leishmaniasis and is often fatal without proper treatment. Therefore, early and accurate diagnosis is important, but often difficult in endemic areas. Objective. The aim was to evaluate a direct agglutination test as a potential visceral leishmaniasis diagnostic method in endemic areas of Venezuela Materials and methods. The performance of the direct agglutination test, based on freeze-dried Leishmania donovani antigen was evaluated under laboratory conditions using serum samples of humans and dogs from several Venezuelan visceral leishmaniasis endemic areas: Nueva Esparta (Margarita Island), Lara, Anzoátegui and Trujillo Status. The study included confirmed visceral leishmaniasis patients (n=30), visceral leishmaniasis suspected subjects (n=4), healthy controls (n=19) and patients with other confirmed diseases (n=20). In addition, 24 serum samples from dogs with confirmed visceral leishmaniasis and 18 healthy control dogs were tested. Results. All serum samples of visceral leishmaniasis patients, either active or recovered, were positive. They showed anti-L. donovani titers above 1:1600. Three out of four suspected visceral leishmaniasis cases were also positive, while serum samples from endemic controls and patients with other diseases had titers lower than 1:800. A sensitivity of 100% was obtained for all threshold levels under consideration and 100% specificity at the threshold titer of 1:800 (95% confidence interval: 91-100%). A 93% sensitivity (95% confidence interval: 76-99%) was observed in dog samples, with 100% specificity (95% confidence interval: 79-100%) at the threshold titer of 1:200. Conclusion. The direct agglutination test seems suitable for use in epidemiological studies and for serological diagnosis of human visceral leishmaniasis and canine visceral leishmaniasis.

Severe mucocutaneous (MCL) and diffuse (DCL) forms of American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL) are infrequent in Venezuela. Chemotherapy produces only transitory remission in DCL, and occasional treatment failures are observed in MCL. We have evaluated therapy with an experimental vaccine in patients with severe leishmaniasis. Four patients with MCL and 3 with early DCL were treated with monthly intradermal injections of a vaccine containing promastigotes of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis killed by pasteurization and viable Bacillus Calmette- Guerin. Clinical and immunological responses were evaluated. Integrity of protein constituents in extracts of pasteurized promastigotes was evaluated by gel electrophoresis. Complete remission of lesions occurred after 5-9 injections in patients with MCL or 7-10 injections in patients with early DCL. DCL patients developed positive skin reactions, average size 18.7 mm. All have been free of active lesions for at least 10 months. Adverse effects of the vaccine were limited to local reactivity to BCG at the injection sites and fever in 2 patients. Extracts of pasteurized and fresh promastigotes did not reveal differences in the integrity of protein components detectable by gel electrophoresis. Immunotherapy with this modified vaccine offers an effective, safe option for the treatment of patients who do not respond to immunotherapy with vaccine containing autoclaved parasites or to chemotherapy .

OBJECTIVE: To report recent data on the distribution of human and canine visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in Venezuela, and to highlight problems associated with effective control measures. METHODS: We report the number of cases, incidence rate, age and sex distribution, and mortality rates for human VL (HVL) for the period of 1995 through 2000, based on National Registry of Leishmaniasis data. We carried out serological studies on a total of 3 025 domestic dogs from the 12 states in Venezuela reporting cases of human VL in this 1995-2000 period and also from the state of Yaracuy, where cases were reported earlier during the decade of the 1990s. RESULTS: From 1995 through 2000, 242 cases of HVL were reported from 12 states, in various sections of Venezuela. There was a relatively stable national incidence rate of 0.2 cases per 100 000 persons per year. Of the 242 cases, 26.0% were from Margarita Island, one of the three islands that make up the state of Nueva Esparta (Margarita Island was the only one of the Nueva Esparta islands that had HVL cases). Over the 1995-2000 period, the annual incidence rates for Nueva Esparta ranged from 1.7 to 3.8 cases per 100000 population. Males in Venezuela were more frequently affected (59.5%) than were females (40.5%). In terms of age, 67.7% of the VL patients were < 4 years of age, and 80.6% were younger than 15 years. The mortality rate among the persons with VL was 7.85% during the 1995-2000 period. Serological screening with rK39 antigen of 1217 dogs from Margarita Island found a 28.5% positivity rate (testing of dogs was not done on the two other islands of Nueva Esparta). In contrast, the rate was 2.8% in the 1 808 samples from dogs from 12 states on the mainland. CONCLUSIONS: Human and canine VL are unevenly distributed in Venezuela. The distribution may reflect such factors as differences among the states in human population density, vector density, and the presence or absence of other trypanosomatidae. Particularly high infection rates in very young children as well as in domestic dogs occur in semiurban communities of Nueva Esparta, where other human-infecting trypanosomatidae have not been reported. Control measures related to limiting canine infection might contribute to disease control where VL infections are frequent. Reducing VL mortality requires increased awareness among medical professionals of the possibility of VL in the differential diagnosis of hepato-splenic syndromes, particularly in children.

OBJETIVOS: Dar a conocer datos recientes acerca de la distribución de la leishmaniasis visceral (LV) humana y canina en Venezuela y resaltar los problemas que se asocian con la aplicación de buenas medidas de control. MÉTODOS: Damos a conocer el número de casos, la tasa de incidencia, la distribución por edad y sexo y las tasas de mortalidad de la LV humana (LVH) durante el período de 1995 a 2000, según datos obtenidos del Registro Nacional de Leishmaniasis. Llevamos a cabo pruebas serológicas en un total de 3 025 perros domésticos de los 12 estados de Venezuela que notificaron casos de LV en este período, y también de Yaracuy, donde se notificaron casos en los primeros años del decenio de los noventa del siglo pasado. RESULTADOS: De 1995 a 2000 se notificaron 242 casos de LVH en los 12 estados en distintas partes de Venezuela. Hubo una tasa de incidencia nacional relativamente estable de 0,2 casos por 100 000 habitantes al año. De los 242 casos, 26,0% eran de Isla Margarita, una de las tres islas que integran el estado de Nueva Esparta (Isla Margarita fue la única de las islas de Nueva Esparta que tuvo casos de LVH). Durante el período de 1995-2000, la incidencia anual en Nueva Esparta osciló de 1,7 a 3,8 casos por 100000 habitantes. Los hombres en Venezuela se vieron afectados con mayor frecuencia (59,5%) que las mujeres (40,5%). En cuanto a la edad, 67,7% de los pacientes con LV tenían 4 años de edad y 80,6% tenían menos de 15 años. La tasa de mortalidad entre las personas con LV fue de 7,85% durante el período de 1995-2000. El tamizaje serológico con antígeno rK39 en 1217 perros de Isla Margarita detectó una tasa de positividad de 28,5% (no se les efectuaron pruebas a los perros de las otras dos islas de Nueva Esparta). En cambio, la tasa fue de 2,8% en las 1808 muestras tomadas de perros en los 12 estados en tierra firme. DISCUSIÓN: La LV humana y canina no están uniformemente distribuidas en Venezuela. La distribución podría reflejar factores tales como diferencias entre los estados en términos de densidad poblacional humana, densidad vectorial y la presencia o ausencia de otros tipos de tripanosomas. Se observan tasas especialmente elevadas de infección en niños muy pequeños, así como en perros domésticos, en comunidades semiurbanas de Nueva Esparta, donde no se ha notificado la presencia de otros tripanosomas capaces de infectar al ser humano. Las medidas de control destinadas a limitar la infección canina podrían contribuir al control de la enfermedad en sitios con una alta frecuencia de LV. Para reducir la mortalidad por LV es preciso lograr que los profesionales de la medicina cobren mayor conciencia de la posibilidad de que la LV sea uno de los diagnósticos diferenciales en casos que cursen con síndromes hepatoesplénicos, especialmente en niños.

Sixty-five patients were diagnosed with visceral leishmaniasis (VL) on Margarita Island in the decade from 1990 to1999; 86.2% were <= 3 years old. All were leishmanin-negative at diagnosis. Evaluation of 23 cured patients in 1999 revealed that 22/23 had converted to leishmanin-positive; five had persisting antibodies to rK39 antigen, with no clinical evidence of disease. Leishmanin tests were positive in 20.2% of 1,643 healthy individuals from 417 households in endemic areas. Of the positive reactors, 39.8% were identified in 35 (8.4%) of the households, 15 of which had an antecedent case of VL, a serologically positive dog or both. Weak serological activity to rK39 antigen was detected in 3 of 488 human sera from the endemic areas. The presence of micro-foci of intense peri-urban transmission and the apparent absence of other Trypanosomatidae causing human disease offer a unique opportunity for the study of reservoirs, alternative vectors and evaluation of control measures on the Island.

An increase in the incidence of human visceral leishmaniasis (HVL) has been detected in recent years on Margarita Island, located off the NE coast of Venezuela. Recent studies have revealed reactivity to rK39 antigen (Leishmania chagasi) in 20% of 541 sera from domestic dogs in endemic communities; PCR reactions were positive using primers for the L. donovani complex. Here we report that isolates from human and canine infection, identified by isoenzyme analysis, correspond to L. infantum, zymodeme MON-1. This appears to be the first isolation and identification of an isolate from HVL on Margarita Island and demonstrates the presence of this zymodeme in the canine population.