Abstract Forest landscape structure comprises a mosaic of natural and human-modified units, which when well depicted, may help to plan and implement forest management policies, which commonly assume territorial homogeneity. Usually, forest policies lack the use of spatial tools that can help scale up conservation program in heterogeneous forested landscapes. This paper applied a conceptual-methodological framework as baseline to guide regional strategies and scale-up community collective action based on local forestry ejidos and communities. The study case was conducted in the Mixteca Alta, a forestry region in Oaxaca, Mexico, where common property prevails. Zoning was made based on biophysical, social, and forest management criteria. A total of 97 communities were surveyed and the region was disaggregated into five zones based on precipitation, watersheds, community forest management experience and level of regional collective action. Each zone was recognized as having different forestry potentials and intervention needs, ranging from restoration to timber and non-timber product management. This zoning proved the potential to guide forest projects and promote joint regional forest development. The potential use of landscape zoning was discussed in the light of the current need for scale-up forest policies.

Resumen La estructura del paisaje forestal abarca un mosaico de unidades naturales y modificadas por el hombre, que bien representadas pueden ayudar a planificar e implementar políticas de gestión forestal, que comúnmente asumen la homogeneidad territorial. Por lo general, las políticas forestales carecen del uso de herramientas espaciales que puedan ayudar a ampliar el programa de conservación en paisajes forestales heterogéneos. En este trabajo se aplicó un marco conceptual-metodológico como línea de base para orientar las estrategias regionales y escalar la acción colectiva comunitaria basada en los ejidos y comunidades forestales locales. El caso de estudio se realizó en la Mixteca Alta, una región forestal de Oaxaca, México, donde prevalece la propiedad comunal. La zonificación se hizo con base en criterios biofísicos, sociales y de manejo forestal. Se encuestó a un total de 97 comunidades y se desagregó la región en cinco zonas en función de las precipitaciones, las cuencas hidrográficas, la experiencia en gestión forestal comunitaria y el nivel de acción colectiva regional. Se reconoció que cada zona tenía diferentes potenciales forestales y necesidades de intervención, que van desde la restauración hasta la gestión de productos madereros y no madereros. Esta zonificación demostró su potencial para orientar los proyectos forestales y promover el desarrollo forestal regional conjunto. El uso potencial de la zonificación del paisaje se debatió a la luz de la necesidad actual de ampliar las políticas forestales.

Abstract Background: seasonally dry tropical forests are considered critical and important ecosystems because they harbor exceptional biological diversity. Mexico lacks sound phytosociological studies of Seasonally Dry Tropical Forest and Michoacán is no exception. The present study may be regarded the first phytosociological in most of the Mexican pacific coast where seasonally dry tropical forests occurs. Questions/Objective: We aimed at describing the representative plant associations of the seasonally dry tropical forest, distributed on western Michoacán and to provide a sintaxonomic classification framework based on the floristic differentiation of the recognized communities and highlight its phytocenotic diversity. Study site and dates: Estado de Michoacán; 20 years. Methods: A total of 82 phytosociological inventories were conducted. Data were submitted to multivariate two-way indicator species analyses to depict plant communities and their ecological affinities. Results: From its analysis and interpretation, nine plant groups were differentiated, of which all but one was given the rank of association, which are Lysilomo acapulcensis-Heliocarpetum terebinthinacei, Ceibo aesculifoliae-Lysilometum divaricatae, Caesalpinio platylobae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis, Cochlospermo vitifolii-Lueheetum candidae, Lysilomo divaricatae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis; Stenocereo quevedonis-Cordietum selerianae, Guazumo ulmifoliae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis¸ Lonchocarpo huetamoensis-Cordietum elaeagnoidis and the community of Spondias purpurea-Cochlospermum vitifolium. Conclusions: Comparative floristic and structural profiles among plant communities permitted us to distinguish their bioclimatic relationships. Diagnostic species representative of all plant associations were selected and used for sintaxonomic nomenclature. Plant associations were finally array along bioclimatic and altitudinal gradients and showed in arranged phytosociological tables. The plant association/community’descriptions permitted to compare structural physiognomy, floristic composition, ecological affinities, distribution patterns and bioclimatic liaison among them.

Resumen Antecedentes: Los bosques tropicales estacionalmente secos se consideran ecosistemas críticos e importantes porque albergan una diversidad biológica excepcional. México carece de estudios fitosociológicos robustos de estos bosques y Michoacán no es la excepción. Este estudio puede ser considerado como el primer análisis fitosociológico en la costa pacífica mexicana donde ocurren los bosques tropicales estacionalmente secos. Preguntas/Objetivo: Nos propusimos contribuir el registro de las asociaciones mejor representadas en el occidente del Estado y dar una clasificación basada en las afinidades florísticas y resaltar a diversidad fitocenótica. Sitio y años de estudio: Estado de Michoacán; 20 años. Métodos: Se realizaron un total de 82 inventarios fitosociológicos. Los datos fueron sometidos a análisis multivariados de especies indicadoras de dos vías para definir las asociaciones y conocer sus afinidades ecológicas. Resultados: Se diferenciaron nueve agrupaciones de plantas, de las cuales a todas, menos una, se les asignó el rango de asociación y son Lysilomo acapulcensis-Heliocarpetum terebinthinacei, Ceibo aesculifoliae-Lysilometum divaricatae, Caesalpinio platylobae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis, Cochlospermo vitifolii-Lueheetum candidae, Lysilomo divaricatae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis, Stenocereo quevedonis-Cordietum selerianae, Guazumo ulmifoliae-Cordietum elaeagnoidis¸ Lonchocarpo huetamoensis-Cordietum elaeagnoidis y la comunidad Spondias purpurea-Cochlospermum vitifolium. Conclusiones: La comparación entre los inventarios posibilitó la individualización de grupos que se pudieron vincular con asociaciones/comunidades vegetales y permitieron su caracterización a través de sus vínculos florísticos y estructurales, y de sus preferencias bioclimáticas. De esta manera se seleccionaron las especies diagnósticas características de cada asociación, sus ambientes preferenciales, su jurisdicción fisiográfica y los pisos bioclimáticos donde se distribuyen.

Abstract: Michoacán is among the states with higher rainfed agriculture production in México, and has substantial impact on the national economy. Despite the agricultural importance of this state, no agroclimatic studies have been perform to identify the Length of the Growing Period (LGP), which is the number of months when the climatic conditions are suitable for the establishment of rainfed agriculture. In the present study, we aimed to perform an agroclimatic analysis for the state of Michoacán to determine the LGP for bioclimatic zones. In order to achieve our objective, we calculated the LGP for 112 meteorological stations located within Michoacán. We calculated the humidity index (HUi) using evapotranspiration by two methods: 1) Thornthwaite (ET0-T) and 2) Hargreaves (ET0-H). The values with a HUi higher than 0.5 were used to determine the number of months with continuous rainfall, which constitute the LGP; these data were extrapolated to a map of bioclimatic zones. As a result, the agroclimatic analysis to determine the LGP, allowed us to identify the zones with 6, 5, 4 and 3 months of continuous rainfall. Based on the resulting map, we can to recommend areas with climatic potentials suitable to the requirements of the crops. Our map could also prove useful in the face of climate change by allowing us to relocate the rainfed crops to the zones with an adequate number of months of continuous rainfall.

Resumen: El estado de Michoacán es uno de los mayores productores de cultivos de temporal con repercusión importante en la economía nacional. A pesar de la importancia agrícola del estado, aun no se han realizado estudios agroclimáticos explícitos que identifiquen el potencial de la Longitud del Periodo de Crecimiento (LPC). El objetivo del estudio fue realizar un análisis agroclimático del estado de Michoacán, considerando la LPC por zonas bioclimáticas. Se calculó la LPC de 112 estaciones meteorológicas situadas dentro del estado, con los datos climáticos se calculó el índice de humedad (IH) utilizando la evapotranspiración por los métodos de Thornthwaite y Hargreaves, se consideró los valores de IH mayores a 0.5 y se identificó el número de meses con lluvia continua, los cuales constituyen la LPC; que se utilizaron para espacializarlos por zonas bioclimáticas en un mapa. El análisis agroclimático mediante el uso de la LPC permitió identificar las zonas con 6, 5, 4 y 3 meses de lluvia continua. Con el mapa generado se pueden proponer el establecimiento de cultivos de temporal por zonas con potenciales climáticos que cubran los requerimientos de los cultivos; además, puede ser de utilidad para enfrentar el cambio climático mediante la sustitución de los cultivos en las zonas acordes a los meses de lluvia agrícola continua.

Abstract: Geomorphological inquiry has addressed the relation of cultural landscape features, such as land use, with landforms in different environments and under different land use regimes. Usually, these complex relationships have been pursuit by simple map overlaying in a geographic information system (GIS). This research argues that the results of map overlaying need to be followed by statistical analyses to properly depict the nature of such relationships. The paper explores the quantitative relation between landforms and land use in a highly geographically complex region in the tropical dry Mexican Pacific coast. Data collection encompassed two phases: preliminary satellite image interpretation, and field verification and ground survey. Digitized and orthorectified layers were incorporated and overlain in a GIS. Correspondence Analysis (CA) was used to identify correlations among land uses and landforms. Results showed a significant correspondence between geomorphic and land use entities. Fluvial landforms were associated to simpler patterns of human activity. Denudational landforms, on the other hand, depicted more complex and diverse land use patterns. Agricultural and grazing activities occurred in both gentle, fluvial landforms, and steep denudational landforms. Results were discussed in the light of their relevance for land use planning. This approach may strengthen decision making procedures particularly in such areas where applied geographic data need to be created to perform sound land use planning at the local scale.

Resumen: Las investigaciones geomorfológicas han estudiado la relación entre los aspectos culturales del paisaje, como los usos del suelo, con las geoformas en diferentes contextos geográficos. De manera más específica, estas líneas de investigación se han enfocado a la manera como el terreno condiciona las actividades humanas. El estudio de estas relaciones, que generalmente son complejas, ha tendido a simplificarse a partir de meras sobreposiciones cartográficas en los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG). El presente artículo argumenta que los resultados de la sobreposición de datos geográficos pueden beneficiarse, para comprender los resultados, de un análisis de estadística multivariada. Estos análisis permiten interpretar la naturaleza de las relaciones espaciales entre los diferentes elementos que conforman el paisaje. Por lo tanto, se exploró el grado de correlación cuantitativa entre geoformas y usos del suelo en una región tropical seca de la costa Pacífico mexicana. Se eligió al valle bajo de Nexpa, en la región Sierra-Costa del estado de Michoacán, como caso de estudio por su grado de complejidad morfogenética y por su composición litológica y estructural heterogénea. La colecta de datos se realizó en dos fases: una fase preliminar de interpretación de imágenes satelitales (Quickbird 2008) y una fase de verificación en campo y levantamiento del terreno. La clasificación del relieve se hizo utilizando pares estereoscópicos impresos a una escala 1:10 000. Los datos de uso del suelo, por otra parte, se interpretaron utilizando los datos de cubierta del terreno como insumo. Posteriormente, se clasificaron estos datos a partir de técnicas de levantamiento participativo y etnografía de campo. Las capas de información geográfica fueron digitalizadas, vectorizadas e incorporadas a un SIG. De esta forma, se pudo obtener una matriz con los datos de sobreposición espacial de los polígonos. Posteriormente, se aplicó un Análisis de Correspondencia (AC) que fue utilizado para identificar el grado de correlación entre usos y geoformas. Los resultados muestran una correspondencia significativa entre diferentes entidades. Se aplicó un primer AC con todas las clases del terreno. Los resultados revelaron que la “planicie costera” y el “lecho mayor” se asocian, mayormente, a usos como la pesca artesanal, el nado y las actividades turísticas. Una segunda etapa fue aplicada excluyendo las clases de “planicie costera” y “lecho mayor”, que capturaron demasiada varianza en el primer análisis. La prueba posterior develó mayor detalle en asociaciones espaciales más finas y menos evidentes en el paisaje. Las geoformas de origen fluvial se asociaron con patrones más simples de actividad humana. Como contraparte, en las geoformas de denudación, el análisis reveló patrones más complejos y diversos con los usos del suelo. Las actividades agrícolas y ganaderas se presentaron, de diferentes maneras, tanto en geoformas fluviales como en las de denudación. Los usos forestales no maderables, como la caza y la extracción de leña, se asociaron con áreas de mayor pendiente y podrían haber favorecido ciertos procesos de conservación del bosque tropical seco en el área. Esta última interpretación requiere de un análisis a mayor profundidad. Los resultados se discutieron en término de su relevancia y utilidad para la planeación territorial. Este enfoque podría fortalecer los procedimientos espaciales para la toma de decisiones, particularmente en áreas en donde los datos de geografía aplicada se requieren para el sondeo de usos y actividades a escala local.

Abstract: Public policies (PP) are defined as actions designed, implemented and evaluated by governments operating through programs, with the ultimate goal to improve and solve social problems in the short and long term. I theory, PP should be designed considering, among other things, basic social, economic and environmental information of the areas where such programs derived. However, a common deficiency in the design of public policies for the management of forest resources in Mexico is the lack of analysis in the complexity of a territorial context, which directly affects the results of the PP. This variable is relevant in Mexico, due to the great heterogeneity of the territory, so the results in the implementation of programs and projects arising from forest PP, usually lacks of a fundamental theoretical basis for obtaining better results. Thus, the objective of this study is the development of a methodological framework that incorporates the spatial variable to improve the design of forest PP ad hoc to each territory. The Forest Condition Index (FCI) was designed and implemented as an instrument to provide a robust spatial reference by assessing forest condition in contrast to the degree of marginalization of municipal entities. The inputs for the FCI describes the dynamics of the degree of marginalization and the dynamics of plant cover during the period 2000-2010 of all municipalities in the state of Michoacan, used as a study case. The application of the FCI to the 113 municipalities in the state, results in the categorization of municipalities in 4 classes, depicting possible trends between marginalization and forest cover. The largest number of municipalities (31), which represents 35.78% of the state’s land, were grouped in class IV, indicating a trend in the increase the index of marginalization and the decrease in forest cover. Only 26 municipalities were located in Class I, revealed a favorable trend with a decreasing rate of marginalization and an increasing on the forest cover. The identified classes, showed that there are significantly differing trends between municipalities, indicating different problems and challenges. We argue that social vulnerability may affect negatively or positively by the availability of forest cover. This consideration is based on the opportunity that sustainable use of the forest represents to access financial resources, and thus impact directly on the social and economic welfare of the population established in areas where forest management is main economic activity. According to the results of the FCI, it is necessary to propose an adequate model of PP design, according to the environmental condition of the territory, that allow a gradual increase of forest cover (conceived as the natural capital) and lower rates of marginalization through a model of sustainable use of forest resources. We emphasize the design of PP given the steps involved to improve forest conditions, such as processes of forest restoration, soil management, social organization, which together carry long periods of time. It is concluded that each area requires a design appropriate forest PP their condition to achieve their short- and long-term effectiveness. We discussed the relevance of results of the FCI in the light of forest public policies and their consequences in the degree of vulnerability of the territories in the consideration that the same PP applies for diverse areas. We highlight the work that is required for the PP design, in the fact that it is a crucial moment in the cycle of the PP. The FCI is proposed as an input for forest PP design that uses public information, seeking to improve efficiency in forest PP.

Resumen: Las políticas públicas (PP) se definen como aquellas acciones diseñadas, implementadas y evaluadas por el gobierno, que operan a través de programas, cuyo fin último es mejorar o solucionar problemas sociales a corto y largo plazo. Una deficiencia recurrente en el diseño de las políticas públicas es la falta de análisis de la complejidad del contexto territorial. Por lo anterior, el objetivo de este estudio se centró en desarrollar el Índice de Condición Forestal como instrumento que provee una referencia espacial robusta para fortalecer el diseño de PP de corte forestal ad hoc para cada territorio. Los insumos del Índice de Condición Forestal son datos que describen la dinámica tanto del grado de marginación como de la cobertura vegetal durante el periodo 2000-2010 de los municipios de Michoacán como estudio de caso. Los resultados demuestran que existen grupos de municipios con tendencias significativamente disímiles y que por ende experimentan problemáticas y desafíos contrastantes. Se concluye que cada territorio requiere un diseño de políticas púbicas de corte forestal adecuado a su condición para lograr su efectividad a corto y largo plazo. Se discute la relevancia de los resultados a la luz de la etapa de diseño de las políticas públicas y las consecuencias con respecto al grado de vulnerabilidad de los territorios al suponer que una misma PP se aplica igual en territorios tan disímiles.

Abstract: The State of Michoacan, as well as a handful of other hot spot regions worldwide, harbors an outstanding overlap between natural and cultural richness as a result of intermingle climatic geological, geographical and ecological conditions. Presently both, natural and cultural heritages are jeopardized at most hot spots worldwide and policy makers seek urgently for robust base line information to restore and eventually reorient development. Spatially explicit base line data bases have been recognized as critical in order to facilitate design and implementation of public policies. In this sense, dynamics of native land cover/vegetation patterns (natural units) have helped in enormously to provide base line information and predict outcomes. A rather critical issue relies in developing replicable and robust methods to predict natural units, as a direct response of climatic, geological and geomorphological data (physical units). Often natural units are used as spatial criteria to delineate physical units, yet these latter are regarded as the responsible variables for delimiting natural units. This tautological thought has been largely neglected in most scientific literature in Mexico when constructing cartographic outputs. In this article, we argue that native land cover/vegetation patterns are the response variable of physical attributes at a meso-scale level. Hence, the objective of this investigation was to predict native land cover/vegetation patterns based upon climatic, geological, geomorphological and ecological attributes hierarchically intermingled. The contribution was made in order to developing a robust and replicable method accordingly to current available information worldwide. The research took place in Michoacan state as it is regarded a typical hotspot comprising geo-ecological complex features. To illustrate this further, Michoacan harbors over 800 tree species which overpasses the number of species of all Western Europe. Prediction modeling was with the aid of a geographic information system. Decisions rules were based upon Boolean logic giving special attention to emerging bioclimatic zoning techniques. The later consists in providing gradients of temperature and precipitation along seasonal threshold values so that sound matching between physical and natural units is found. In addition, an innovative aspect regards the cartographic expression of these gradients of temperature and precipitation here referred as termotype and ombrotypes respectively. Outcomes demonstrated that prediction of native land cover/vegetation patterns was feasible within a geo-ecologically complex region as Michoacan. In addition, dissecting attributes of the landscape hierarchically organized proved to be a robust and replicable method to reconstruct native vegetation patterns at places currently covered by anthropogenic activities. Tropical seasonally dry forests covers most surface still covers most surface (28.52% of the State), whereas, temperate forests cover the second most abundant types (27.71% of the State). Aquatic vegetation (0.22% of the State), and Xerophytic scrubland (0.08% of the State), are currently the least represented types. The prediction modeling indicated that tropical seasonally dry forests has been depleted in 18.68% of the State, while temperate forests in 14.98% of the State. Ecotones delimiting tropical seasonally dry and temperate forests are under drastic threat because two mayor productive systems are gaining global importance. Avocado and Mango produced at these regions are expanding their ranges as a result of global demands. In consequence our current findings may serve to reorient policy makers in order to find tradeoffs and thresholds to conciliate encroachment of productive systems and maintenance of environmental services provided by native land cover/vegetation patterns. To conclude, native land cover/vegetation patterns were predicted as a response variable of physical attributes so that tautological thinking was avoided. The method developed may be applied to other hot spots provided that physical information is available. A practical outcome regard the obtained land cover/vegetation map, which may serve as baseline to predict future scenarios in the light of current man-made and climatic changes foreseen.

Resumen: El estado de Michoacán alberga una yuxtaposición de riquezas culturales y naturales destacable que se entrelazan entre condiciones geológicas, geográficas y ecológicas. Este patrimonio natural y cultural está hoy día amenazado, por ende, los tomadores de decisiones buscan información de línea base para restaurar y reorientar las acciones de desarrollo. El objetivo de este artículo, por tanto, fue predecir los patrones de cubierta vegetal oriunda a través de un método replicable. La predicción se basó en atributos climáticos, geológicos, geomorfológicos y ecológicos, jerárquicamente yuxtapuestos a través de un sistema de información geográfica (SIG). Las reglas de decisión se basaron en lógica booleana dando énfasis a la zonificación bioclimatológica. La predicción de la cubierta vegetal oriunda mostró que los bosques estacionales tropicales cubren la mayor superficie, mientras que la vegetación acuática es la menos representada. Para concluir, los atributos que delimitan el paisaje, jerárquicamente organizados, probaron ser un método robusto y replicable para reconstruir los patrones de la cubierta vegetal oriunda, actualmente en áreas de cobertura antropogénica. Este resultado, expresado en un mapa, servirá como línea base para predecir los escenarios futuros a la luz de los cambios climáticos previstos.

Mexican lagomorphs (15 species) represent part of Mexico's natural heritage which invoke contrasting perceptions. On the one side, some species are granted as threatening of ecological disturbances due to its versatility and adaptation to man-made changes. On the other, a number of species are highly threatened and some at the verge of extinction. The present paper analyses conjointly, biogeographic and ecological distribution patterns in connection with potential strategic local stakeholders who may turn allies to implement manipulation and conservation of lagomorph's populations. The geographic approach allowed simultaneous use of geospatial, social and ecological data bases. These were needed to delineate critical territories for this Mexican mammalian order. Results pinpoint eight critical territories covering over one million hectares to ensure long term survival of these 15 lagomorph's species. The immediate challenge is to guide the performance of these critical territories into sustainable practices. This task has to be conducted under the legitimate local communal governance schemes; which are the underlying social forces that have ensure the persistence of the present Mexican lagomorphs.

Los lagomorfos de México (15 especies) constituyen un patrimonio natural que confronta percepciones antagónicas. Por un lado, un grupo de especies se concibe como amenazadoras de disturbios ecológicos por su versatilidad biológica y capacidad de adaptación a condiciones antropogénicas. Por el otro, algunas especies son categorizadas como amenazadas y en su mayoría con alto riesgo de extinción. El presente documento analiza de manera integral patrones de distribución biogeográficos y ecológicos en conjunto con la identificación de los actores locales que pueden ser aliados estratégicos en el uso y la conservación de las poblaciones de lagomorfos. El marco geográfico utilizado permitió el manejo simultáneo de bases de datos geoespaciales, sociales y ecológicas para poder delinear territorios críticos para este orden de mamíferos mexicano. El resultado indica que con 8 territorios críticos que ocupan un poco más de un millón de hectáreas se lograría la conservación de las 15 especies en el largo plazo. El reto inmediato es dirigir el curso de estos territorios críticos hacia prácticas sustentables, respetando los sistemas de gobierno comunal legítimos que hoy día son los responsables de la presencia de este grupo de lagomorfos mexicanos.

Se evaluó el papel de la topografía como variable sustituta para explicar patrones de diversidad de tipos de vegetación (DTV). Se calculó el índice de diversidad de vegetación de Simpson para todo el territorio mexicano utilizando mapas de uso del suelo y vegetación por medio de SIG. Se determinó la correlación entre diversidad de vegetación y algunos atributos topográficos (altitud, rango de elevación, pendiente, rugosidad y exposición), encontrándose correlación significativa entre las variables topográficas y la diversidad de vegetación (Coeficiente de Spearman >0,4, p=0,01 con tres variables: rango y promedio de elevación, y pendiente) con una ventana óptima de 80×80km². Luego se modeló los DTV con base en los atributos topográficos usando un enfoque de redes neurales artificiales. La comparación entre los mapas de DTV modelados y reales mostró que el modelo es una buena estimación de la diversidad de vegetación. El análisis de errores sugiere que los DTV no pueden explicarse totalmente por atributos topográficos, aunque éstos juegan un papel fundamental en los DTV a escala regional y continental. Las coberturas del suelo y la vegetación reflejan los patrones de distribución de la biodiversidad, por lo que la modelación de los DTV es un enfoque prometedor para evaluar la biodiversidad. La conclusión principal es que las variables topográficas, disponibles en diferentes escalas de resolución para la mayor parte del mundo, pueden ser utilizadas para representar patrones regionales de biodiversidad. Este aspecto es crucial en países tropicales, los cuales presentan alta biodiversidad pero frecuentemente carecen de bases de datos sobre coberturas del suelo confiables y actualizadas

The role played by topography as a surrogate variable to explain vegetation diversity types (VDT) was evaluated. Using GIS, a Simpson vegetation diversity index for the entire Mexican territory was computed based on land use and vegetation maps. Then, the correlation between VDT and topographical attributes (elevation, range of elevation, slope, roughness and diversity of aspect) was calculated using different sizes of analysis windows. A significant correlation between topographical variables and vegetation diversity was found (Spearman coefficient of correlation >0.4, p=0.01 with three variables: elevation average and range, and slope), with an optimal window of 80×80km². Subsequently, modeling VDT from the topographical attributes using an artificial neural network approach was attempted. The comparison between the modeled and the observed VDT maps showed that the model produced a reasonable estimate of vegetation diversity. From error analysis it may be deduced that VDT cannot be totally explained by topographical attributes alone, although these play a primary role in VDT at regional to continental scale. As results have shown that land cover and vegetation accurately portrays biodiversity distribution patterns, VDT modeling is a promising approach to assess biodiversity. It is concluded that topographical variables, globally available at a 3-arc-second resolution (~90m) through the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) project, may be used to portray regional biodiversity patterns. This is crucial in tropical countries that harbor high biodiversity but often lack accurate and updated land cover databases

Avaliou-se o papel da topografia como variável substituta para explicar padrões de diversidade de tipos de vegetação (DTV). Calculou-se o índice de diversidade de vegetação de Simpson para todo o território mexicano utilizando mapas de uso do solo e vegetação por meio de SIG. Determinou-se a correlação entre diversidade de vegetação e alguns atributos topográficos (altitude, faixa de elevação, inclinação, rugosidade e exposição), encontrando-se correlação significativa entre as variáveis topográficas e a diversidade de vegetação (Coeficiente de Spearman >0,4, p=0,01 com três variáveis: faixa e média de elevação, e inclinação) com uma ventana otima de 80×80km². Logo se modelou os DTV com base nos atributos topográficos usando um enfoque de redes neurais artificiais. A comparação entre os mapas de DTV modelados e reais mostrou que o modelo é uma boa estimação da diversidade de vegetação. A análise de erros sugere que os DTV não podem explicar-se totalmente por atributos topográficos, ainda que estes joguem um papel fundamental nos DTV a escala regional e continental. As coberturas do solo e a vegetação refletem os padrões de distribuição da biodiversidade, pelo que a modelação dos DTV é um enfoque prometedor para avaliar a biodiversidade. A conclusão principal é que as variáveis topográficas, disponíveis em diferentes escalas de resolução para a maior parte do mundo, podem ser utilizadas para representar padrões regionais de biodiversidade. Este aspecto é crucial em países tropicais, os quais apresentam alta biodiversidade mas, freqüentemente carecem de bases de dados sobre coberturas do solo confiáveis e atualizadas

En general, los procesos de polinización y dispersión de semillas son fundamentales para entender la colonización y la regeneración de ecosistemas. En este trabajo se analizó la composición florística y sus síndromes de polinización y dispersión de semillas de la familia Solanaceae en bosques mesófilos de regiones equivalentes de México y Brasil. Se partió de la premisa que bosques fisonómicamente semejantes distribuidos en regiones equivalentes deberían tener procesos funcionales equiparables. Los resultados confirman las diferencias en composición florística pero ambos bosques comparten un número similar de especies de Solaneacea (México 25 y Brasil 26). Para el caso de México se encontró que la distribución y abundancia de Solanaceae está primeramente asociado a las condiciones de perturbación y de humedad, mientras que para el caso de Brasil la distribución y abundancia está preferentemente relacionada a la elevación y la humedad. En ambas regiones se encontró que el síndrome de polinización dominante es la melitofília; sin embargo, al comparar los síndromes de dispersión de semillas se verificó que hay diferencias significativas. Para México prevalece la ornitocoria mientras que para Brasil la quiropterocoria. Esto coincide con los centros de diversificación de aves en Centro América y de quirópteros en Sudamérica, lo que sugiere que las especies de solanáceas han experimentado un proceso de coadapación funcional con respecto a los grupos dispersores de semillas de aves y murciélagos en cada región.

In general, it is widely accepted that polination and seed dispersal syndromes are fundamental to understand colonization and regeneration of ecosystems. This paper analyzed the floristic composition of Solanacea and their polination and seed dispersal syndromes of Mountain Cloud Forests from equivalent regions from Mexico and Brazil. It was argued that similar functional processes are to be found at physiognomically similar forests from equivalent regions. Both regions shared a similar number of Solanacea species (Mexico 25 and Brazil 26) but differed drastically in their composition. In Mexico it was found that disturbance and humidity were best correlated with current distribution and abundance patterns, whereas for Brazil elevation and humidity played a most relevant role. In both regions melitophilia was found as the dominant polination syndrome. However, seed dispersal differs since in Mexico Solanaceae are mainly dispersed by birds; whereas bats are the seed dispersal agents in Brazil. These results support the evidence that the diversification center of birds is mainly restricted to Central America, while in South America bats play this role. In short, Solanaceae seem to have coadapted their seed dispersal syndromes to the available bird and bat dispersers in each region.

Em geral, os processos de polinização e dispersão de sementes são fundamentais para entender a colonização e a regeneração dos ecossistemas. Neste trabalho, analisou-se a composição florística e suas síndromes de polinização e dispersão de sementes da família Solanaceae nas florestas mesófilas das regiões equivalentes do México e do Brasil. Partiu-se da premissa que se as florestas são fisionômicamente semelhantes e estão distribuídas em regiões equivalentes, deveriam ter processos funcionais similares. Os resultados mostram as diferenças na composição florística, mas ambas as florestas compartem um número similar de espécies de Solanaceae (México 25 e Brasil 26). No México, verificou-se que a distribuição e a abundância das espécies de Solanaceae estão primeiramente associadas às condições de perturbação e umidade, enquanto que no Brasil, as análises sugerem a altitude ao nível do mar e a umidade. Nas dois regiões constatou-se que a síndrome de polinização dominante é a melitofilia. Entretanto, ao comparar as síndromes de dispersão de sementes, verificou-se que existem diferenças significativas entre essas regiões. Para o México prevalece a ornitocoria, enquanto para o Brasil a quiropterocoria. Isto coincide com os centros de diversificação das aves na América Central e dos quirópteros na América do Sul, o que sugere que houve um processo de coadaptação funcional entre as espécies de solanáceas e as espécies de morcegos e aves dispersoras de sementes em cada região.

Neste trabalho a hipótese é que a composição das espécies de Solanaceae e as síndromes de polinização e dispersão de sementes variam de acordo com o grau de perturbação. Assim o objetivo é analisar como a composição de espécies de Solanaceae e suas síndromes de polinização e de dispersão de sementes variam ao longo de um gradiente de perturbação. Este trabalho foi realizado nas Florestas Mesófilas de Hidalgo, México. As Solanaceae foram coletadas ao longo de transectos, dispostos em caminhos ou estradas secundárias. As síndromes de polinização e dispersão de sementes foram caracterizadas a partir das características morfológicas das flores e frutos. Das 500 amostras coletadas, 392 continham Solanaceae, pertencentes a 25 espécies. A similaridade entre as amostras mostrou dois grupos: no grupo I estavam as espécies mais freqüentemente encontradas em áreas menos perturbadas e mais úmidas, enquanto o grupo II apresentava as espécies mais freqüentes em ambientes mais perturbados. A síndrome de melitofilia foi relevante nos dois grupos. No entanto, a ornitocoria (45,8%) prevaleceu sobre a chiropterocoria (37,5%) em áreas menos perturbada e mais úmida do grupo I, enquanto chiropterocoria (50%) foi maior no grupo II.

In this work we hypothesised that Solanaceae species composition and pollination and seed dispersal syndromes change according to the degree of disturbance. Hence, the aim of this study is to analyze how the species composition of Solanaceae changes along disturbance gradients of mountain cloud forest, and to establish how Solanaceae pollination and seed dispersal syndromes vary along the same gradients. The study concentrates on the mountain cloud forests in Hidalgo, Mexico. Solanaceae species collection was carried out along transects, laid out alongside paths and secondary roads. Pollination and seed dispersal syndromes for all species were recorded based on floral and fruit morphological traits. From the 500 sample units surveyed, 392 contained 25 Solanaceae species. The (dis)similarity among sample units highlighted a major division: the first group harboured species more commonly found in less disturbed and more humid conditions, whereas the second group contained species more commonly found in contrasting conditions. Melittophily pollination syndromes turned out to be equally relevant in the environmental conditions of both groups. With regard to seed dispersal syndromes, ornithochory (45.8%) prevailed over chiropterochory (37.5%) in group I less disturbed and more humid areas, whereas chiropterochory (50%) prevailed within group II.

Este estudio compara de manera cuantitativa (ventajas y desventajas) entre los enfoques de cartografía de la vegetación y rodales forestales. Los resultados intentan conciliar el uso y la conservación del mismo objeto de estudio, "el bosque". El enfoque para el estudio de la vegetación siguió los métodos de descripción y clasificación de la escuela Europea. En total se realizaron 177 relevés siguiendo un diseño estratificado. Se distinguieron 13 comunidades de plantas e identificaron las especies características de cada comunidad. El enfoque para el estudio forestal siguió un diseño estratificado sistemático de muestreo; en donde se muestrearon 136 rodales forestales subdivididos en 1271 subrodales. El estudio incluyó la colecta de datos dasométricos en 4662 sitios de aproximadamente 1000 m² por sitio. Para la comparación se consideraron tres componentes: información florística, dinámica de la vegetación y representación espacial. El estudio de vegetación incluyó 609 especies de plantas vasculares, mientras que el forestal 11 taxa (sólo aquellos de relevancia comercial para productos maderables). Las 13 comunidades de plantas representan diversos estadios de la dinámica de la vegetación, mientras que el forestal solo incluye la dinámica de las poblaciones de especies seleccionadas. En el contexto espacial, ambos enfoques resultaron muy afines (70%). Las diferencias se explican por rodales forestales que albergan mosaicos heterogéneos de comunidades de plantas pero con fisonomías relativamente homogéneas. Se recomiendo fuertemente integrar una estrategia de muestreo complementaria de ambos enfoques para obtener de manera simultanea la información relevante para acciones de uso y conservación del bosque.

The present study quantitatively compares (advantages and disadvantages between) vegetation- and forest-mapping approaches. The results are meant to conciliate use and conservation of the same study subject, the forest. The vegetation approach followed the European school to describe and classify vegetation. A total of 177 relevés were surveyed via a stratified sampling. In total, 13 plant communities were distinguished as well as characteristic species per community. The forest approach followed a stratified systematic sampling design. On the whole, 136 forest stands, comprising 1271 forest substands were recognized. This included the surveying of 4662 sites of approximately 1000m² per site. For comparison purposes, three components were regarded: floristic, vegetation dynamics and spatial distribution. The vegetation approach included 609 vascular plant species, whereas the forest approach only included 11 (those of importance for wooden products). Vegetation dynamics was well represented by the 13 plant communities depicted by the vegetation approach. In contrast, the forest approach only regards dynamics of a few selected plant population species. In the spatial context, a substantial percentage of both approaches were successfully linked (70%). The rest of the forest stands harbor heterogeneous conditions that restricted linking plant communities and forest stands. It is strongly recommended to pursuit a complementary study strategy of both approaches since both provide relevant aspects for forest use and conservation.

Este estudo compara de maneira quantitativa (vantagens e desvantagens) entre os enfoques de cartografia da vegetação e rodales florestais. Os resultados tentam conciliar o uso e a conservação do mesmo objeto de estudo, "o bosque". O enfoque para o estudo da vegetação seguiu os métodos de descrição e classificação da escola Européia. Em total se realizaram 177 releves seguindo um desenho estratificado. Se distinguiram 13 comunidades de plantas e identificaram as espécies características de cada comunidade. O enfoque para o estudo florestal seguiu um desenho estratificado sistemático de amostragem; aonde se observaram 136 rodales florestais subdivididos em 1271 subrodales. O estudo incluiu a coleta de dados dasométricos em 4662 lugares de aproximadamente 1000 m² por lugar. Para a comparação se consideraram três componentes: informação florística, dinâmica da vegetação e representação espacial. O estudo de vegetação incluiu 609 espécies de plantas vasculares, enquanto que o florestal 11 taxa (somente aqueles de relevância comercial para produtos madeiráveis). As 13 comunidades de plantas representam diversos estados da dinâmica da vegetação, enquanto que o florestal só inclui a dinâmica das populações de espécies selecionadas. No contexto espacial, ambos enfoques resultaram muito afins (70%). As diferenças se explicam por rodales florestais que abrigam mosaicos heterogêneos de comunidades de plantas, mas com fisonomias relativamente homogêneas. Se recomendou fortemente integrar uma estratégia de amostragem complementaria de ambos enfoques para obter de maneira simultânea a informação relevante para ações de uso e conservação do bosque.