Abstract The origins of the genus Homo have been a focus of much debate in the paleoanthropological literature due to its importance in understanding the evolutionary trajectories that led to the appearance of archaic humans and our species. On the level of taxonomic classification, the controversies surrounding the origins of Homo are the result of lack of clear classification criteria that separate our genus from australopiths, given the general similarities observed between fossils ascribed to late australopiths and early Homo. The challenge in finding clear autapomorphies for Homo has even led to debates about the classification of Homo habilis and Homo rudolfensis as part of our genus. These debates are further complicated by the scarcity of fossils in the timeframe of appearance of our genus, making any fossils dated to between 3.0 and 2.5 Ma of particular relevance in the context of this discussion. The Ledi-Geraru mandible is one such fossils, which has called the attention of researchers due to its combination of primitive traits seen in Australopithecus and derived traits observed in later Homo. Despite being fragmented and poorly preserved, it is one of the key fossil specimens available from the period mentioned above.

Abstract Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (A. aegypti) transmits arboviral diseases of high public health importance, including those caused by Zika virus (ZIKV), Dengue virus (DENV), Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) and Yellow fever virus (YFV). Barreiras is a city with 157,638 inhabitants in the West of the State of Bahia, Northeast of Brazil. The climate is dry, with well-determined and concentrated seasons of rains. The city is crossed by a Federal Highway and by the Rio Grande river. In this study, we aimed to understand the dynamics of mosquito vectors and arboviral diseases in Barreiras. We used correlation statistics to investigate a possible relationship among rains, mosquito abundance and transmission of diseases. In addition, as a preliminary population genetics estimate, we used geometric morphometrics to compare mosquitoes from areas limited by a highway and a river. We found that i) infestation occurs in rain-dependent cycles and that ii) both, the river and the highway segregate populations of A. aegypti in different areas of the studied city. Our results indicate that it is necessary to treat anthropic containers with mosquito breading capacity during both, the dry and rain seasons in urban areas similar to Barreiras.

Abstract: INTRODUCTION: Mass production of mosquitoes under laboratory conditions allows implementing methods to control vector mosquitoes. Colony development depends on mosquito size and weight. Body size can be estimated from its correlation with wing size, whereas weight is more difficult to determine. Our goal was to test whether wing size can predict the weight. METHODS: We compared dry weight and wing centroid size of Culex quinquefasciatus reared at different temperatures and four diets. RESULTS: Weight and wing size were strongly correlated. The diets did not influence wing size. CONCLUSIONS: Wing centroid size is a good predictor of Cx. quinquefasciatus body weight.

Urban heat islands are characterized by high land surface temperature, low humidity, and poor vegetation, and considered to favor the transmission of the mosquito-borne dengue fever that is transmitted by the Aedes aegypti mosquito. We analyzed the recorded dengue incidence in Sao Paulo city, Brazil, in 2010-2011, in terms of multiple environmental and socioeconomic variables. Geographical information systems, thermal remote sensing images, and census data were used to classify city areas according to land surface temper- ature, vegetation cover, population density, socioeconomic status, and housing standards. Of the 7415 dengue cases, a majority (93.1%) mapped to areas with land surface temperature >28 ◦ C. The dengue incidence rate (cases per 100,000 inhabitants) was low (3.2 cases) in high vegetation cover areas, but high (72.3 cases) in low vegetation cover areas where the land surface temperature was 29 ± 2 ◦ C. Interestingly, a multiple cluster analysis phenogram showed more dengue cases clustered in areas of land surface temperature >32 ◦ C, than in areas characterized as low socioeconomic zones, high population density areas, or slum-like areas. In laboratory experiments, A. aegypti mosquito larval development, blood feeding, and oviposition associated positively with temperatures of 28-32 ◦ C, indicating these temperatures to be favorable for dengue transmission. Thus, among all the variables studied, dengue incidence was most affected by the temperature.

Culex quinquefasciatus é vetor de patógenos humanos, incluindo nematódeos filarídeos e vários vírus. Embora a sua relevância epidemiológica varie entre as diferentes regiões geográficas, o conhecimento da estrutura genética da população é ainda incipiente. Em vista disso, foram avaliados os níveis de diversidade genética de Cx. quinquefasciatus e de híbridos Cx. quinquefasciatus x Cx. pipiens de nove cidades do Brasil e em La Plata, na Argentina. Para os testes foram utilizados fragmentos dos genes mitocondriais cox1 e nd4, juntamente com coxA e wsp do endossimbionte Wolbachia, herdado maternalmente. O fragmento nd4 não apresentou variação entre as amostras, e o cox1 exibiu quatro haplótipos que separaram dois tipos de Cx. quinquefasciatus, com um deles agrupado no sul do Brasil. Os dados de sequência mostraram baixa diversidade, sendo esta discutida. Ambas as amostras de mosquitos brasileiros e argentinos estão infectados com uma única cepa de Wolbachia. A diversidade apresentada por nd4 e cox1 não é congruente com a estrutura da população revelada por marcadores nucleares e morfologia alar de estudos anteriores com estas mesmas populações. Pesquisas com Cx. quinquefasciatus devem, se possível, avaliar a diversidade por DNA mitocondrial na luz de outros marcadores.

Culex quinquefasciatus is a vector of human pathogens, including filarial nematodes and several viruses. Although its epidemiological relevance is known to vary across geographical regions, an understanding of its population genetic structure is still incipient. In light of this, we evaluated the genetic diversity of Cx. quinquefasciatus and Cx. pipiens x Cx. quinquefasciatus hybrids collected from nine localities in Brazil and one site in Argentina. We used mitochondrial genes cox1 and nd4, along with the coxA and wsp genes of the maternally-inherited Wolbachia endosymbiont. The nd4 fragment was invariant between samples, whilst cox1 exhibited four haplotypes that separated two types of Cx. quinquefasciatus, one clustered in southern Brazil. Low sequence diversity was generally observed, being discussed. Both Brazilian and Argentinian mosquitoes were infected with a single Wolbachia strain. As reported in previous studies with these populations, cox1 and nd4 diversity is not congruent with the population structure revealed by nuclear markers or alar morphology. Future Cx. quinquefasciatus research should, if possible, evaluate mtDNA diversity in light of other markers.

Although native to the tropical and subtropical areas of Southeast Asia, Aedes albopictus is now found on five continents, primarily due to its great capacity to adapt to different environments. This species is considered a secondary vector of dengue virus in several countries. Wing geometric morphometrics is widely used to furnish morphological markers for the characterisation and identification of species of medical importance and for the assessment of population dynamics. In this work, we investigated the metric differentiation of the wings of Ae. albopictus samples collected over a four-year period (2007-2010) in São Paulo, Brazil. Wing size significantly decreased during this period for both sexes and the wing shape also changed over time, with the wing shapes of males showing greater differences after 2008 and those of females differing more after 2009. Given that the wings play sex-specific roles, these findings suggest that the males and females could be affected by differential evolutionary pressures. Consistent with this hypothesis, a sexually dimorphic pattern was detected and quantified: the females were larger than the males (with respect to the mean) and had a distinct wing shape, regardless of allometric effects. In conclusion, wing alterations, particularly those involving shape, are a sensitive indicator of microevolutionary processes in this species.

Besouros da subfamília Scolytinae são por vezes considerados como pragas silviculturais e florestais devido ao hábito de alimentar-se de sementes, cascas, troncos e raízes de plantas. Algumas espécies se alimentam de sementes e podem causar danos econômicos quando associadas a cultivares vegetais. Spermophthorus apuleiae Costa-Lima é um escolitídeo neotropical originalmente registrado como "associado" a sementes de Caesalpinia ferrea var. leiostachya Benth, uma árvore brasileira popularmente conhecida como "pau-ferro". Até o momento, não estava claro se esses besouros realmente se alimentam das sementes dessa planta. Para investigar a habilidade de S. apuleiae alimentar-se de sementes de "pau-ferro", observações e colônias desses besouros foram estabelecidos. Tanto em campo como em cativeiro, os besouros não foram observados comendo sementes. Besouros expostos a sementes como a única fonte de alimento foram incapazes de perfurar ou comer as sementes e morreram. Os dados sugerem que S. apuleiae é uma espécie frugívora que peculiarmente não se alimenta de sementes de "pau-ferro".

The weevil subfamily Scolytinae includes beetles which may feed on the bark, trunk or roots of both live and dead trees and are sometimes considered forest and silvicultural pests. Less frequently, some species feed on seeds and may be cause economic losses when associated to plant cultivars. Spermophthorus apuleiae Costa-Lima is a Neotropical Scolytinae formerly recorded to be "associated" with seeds of Caesalpinia ferrea var. leiostachya Benth, a Brazilian tree popularly known in Portuguese as "pau-ferro". Hitherto, it was not clear whether these beetles actually feed on the seeds of that plant. In order to investigate the ability of S. apuleiae to feed on seeds of "pau-ferro", observations were done and colonies of these beetles were established. Both in the field and in captivity the beetles were not observed feeding on the seeds. Even when beetles were exposed to seeds as the only source of food they were incapable of boring or eating the seeds and died. Our data therefore suggest that S. apuleiae is a frugivorous species which peculiarly does not eat seeds of "pau-ferro".

A detecção do sexo de mosquitos da família Culicidae é importante em estudos faunísticos e epidemiológicos, pois somente as fêmeas possuem competência vetora para patógenos. O dimorfismo sexual de genitália e de apêndices cefálicos é, em geral, facilmente visível em culicídeos. As asas também podem ser dimórficas e assim poderiam complementar o procedimento de sexagem. No entanto, tal distinção não é facilmente notável à observação direta. Visando descrever formalmente o dimorfismo sexual alar em Aedes scapularis, um culicídeo vetorialmente competente para arbovírus e filárias, asas de machos e fêmeas foram comparadas usando-se métodos de morfometria geométrica e análise estatística multivariada. Nestas análises, populações dos municípios São Paulo e Pariquera-Açu (Estado de São Paulo) foram amostradas. A forma das asas mostrou evidente dimorfismo sexual, o que permitiu um índice de acurácia de 100% em testes-cegos de reclassificação, independentemente da origem geográfica. Já o tamanho alar foi sexualmente dimórfico apenas na população de São Paulo. Aparentemente, a forma alar é evolutivamente mais estável que o tamanho, interpretação que está de acordo com a teoria de Dujardin (2008b), de que a forma alar de insetos seria composta por caracteres genéticos quantitativos e pouco influenciada por fatores não-genéticos, enquanto que o tamanho alar seria predominantemente determinado por plasticidade decorrente de influências ambientais.

The sex in mosquitoes (Culicidae) is relevant for faunistic and epidemiological surveys because only females are competent to transmit pathogens. Sexual dimorphism comprising genitalia and cephalic appendages is ordinarily visible in culicids. Wings may be also dimorphic and thus be complementary to traditional sexing methods. Nevertheless, such dimorphism is not easily noticeable to direct observation. Aiming to formally describe the sexual dimorphism in Aedes scapularis, a mosquito species competent for virus and filariae, wings of males and females were compared using geometric morphometrics and multivariate statistics. We sampled populations from São Paulo and Pariquera-Açu municipalities (State of São Paulo). Concerning wing shape, the sexual dimorphism was evident from blind reclassification tests which were 100% accurate, independently of the geographical origin of samples. On the other hand, wing size was sexually dimorphic only in the population from Sao Paulo. Presumably, wing shape is evolutionarily more stable than its size, an interpretation which is in accordance with the theory posed by Dujardin (2008b). That theory indicates wing shape would be composed of genetically-determined quantitative characters, and marginally influenced by non-genetic factors, whereas wing size would be more labile and predominantly influenced by the environment.

Caracteres alares diagnósticos de Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex nigripalpus (Diptera, Culicidae). Culex quinquefasciatus e Culex nigripalpus são mosquitos de interesse à saúde pública e que podem ocorrer em simpatria em ambientes urbanos e semi-urbanos. A identificação morfológica dessas espécies pode ser difícil nos casos em que os espécimes não estão bem preservados. Com o intuito de sugerir um método diagnóstico taxonômico, asas de indivíduos dessas espécies foram caracterizadas comparativamente utilizando-se morfometria geométrica. Ambas as espécies puderam ser distinguidas pela forma alar com índices de confiabilidade entre 85-100%. Os resultados presentes indicam que é possível identificar essas espécies baseando-se apenas no formato alar, nos casos em que os caracteres taxonômicos tradicionais não são visíveis.

Wing diagnostic characters for Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex nigripalpus (Diptera, Culicidae). Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex nigripalpus are mosquitoes of public health interest, which can occur sympatrically in urban and semi-urban localities. Morphological identification of these species may be difficult when specimens are not perfectly preserved. In order to suggest an alternative taxonomical diagnosis, wings of these species were comparatively characterized using geometric morphometrics. Both species could be distinguished by wing shape with accuracy rates ranging from 85-100%. Present results indicate that one can identify these species relying only on wing characters when traditional taxonomical characters are not visible.

Variation among natural populations of Culex (Culex) quinquefasciatus Say is associated with different vectorial capacities. The species Cx. quinquefasciatus is present in the equatorial, tropical and subtropical zones in the Brazilian territory, with intermediate forms between Cx. quinquefasciatus and Culex pipiens occurring in regions of latitudes around 33°-35°S. Herein, we studied geographically distinct populations of Cx. quinquefasciatus by genetic characterization and analysis of intra-specific wing morphometrics. After morphological analysis, molecular characterization of Cx. quinquefasciatus and intermediate forms was performed by polymerase chain reaction of the polymorphic nuclear region of the second intron of the acetylcholinesterase locus. Additionally, the morphology of adult female wings collected from six locations was analyzed. Wing centroid sizes were significantly different between some geographical pairs. Mean values of R2/R2+3 differed significantly after pairwise comparisons. The overall wing shape represented by morphometric characters could be divided into two main groupings. Our data suggest that Brazilian samples are morphologically and genetically distinct from the Argentinean samples and also indicated a morphological distinction between northern and southern populations of Brazilian Cx. quinquefasciatus. We suggest that wing morphology may be used for preliminary assessment of population structure of Cx. quinquefasciatusin Brazil.