The objective of this work is to study the possibility of obtaining dense parts using water atomized AISI 316L steel powder in the L-PBF process. Despite its irregular, non-spherical, particle morphology, it has a significantly lower cost. 25 samples were produced varying the laser power and the scanning speeds to determine the optimal processing conditions. Additionally, hot isostatic pressing (HIP) was performed after the L-PBF process to further increase densification. Selected samples were subjected to microstructural characterization. The best densification results obtained were for the sample produced with the laser power of 173 W and scanning speed of 600 mm/s, where densifications close to 98% were obtained. HIP post-processing promoted increased densification of samples with closed porosity, allowing samples with densification above 95% to reach values close to 100%. HIP did not promote the closure of open pores. The results indicate that the use of water atomized AISI 316L in the L-PBF process combined with post-processing by HIP can produce dense engineering components and at the same time reduce the production costs of the manufactured components, mainly because it is a lower cost raw material when compared to the commonly used feedstock obtained by gas atomization.

Resumo Sabe-se que as velocidades de soldagem e rotacional, força axial, ângulo de inclinação e desenho da ferramenta são as principais variáveis de entrada independentes, que são utilizadas para controlar o processo de soldagem por atrito com pino não consumível, e que a taxa de geração de calor, taxa de resfriamento, força na direção de soldagem e o torque são as variáveis de resposta, que irão influenciar na evolução microestrutural e desempenho mecânico da junta soldada. Neste trabalho foi feito um estudo do comportamento destas variáveis visando o desenvolvimento de parâmetros para o aço API 5L X80 (ISO 3183 X80M). Para tanto, chapas com 12 mm de espessura, foram soldadas através de dois passes, utilizando ferramenta de nitreto de boro cúbico policristalino. Observou-se que, mantendo-se a velocidade de soldagem constante, o aumento da velocidade rotacional e /ou da força axial, tende a reduzir as forças reativas e o torque atuantes durante o processo pelo aumento da taxa de geração de calor. Por outro lado, mantendo-se essas variáveis constantes, o aumento da velocidade de soldagem tende a aumentar as forças e o torque, uma vez que para o aço, este parâmeto desempenha um papel significativo na taxa de geração de calor durante o processo.

Abstract It is known that welding and rotational speeds, axial force, the inclination angle, and the tool design are the main independent input variables which are used to control the process of friction stir welding, and the heat generation rate and cooling, force in the welding direction and torque are the response variables that will change the microstructural evolution and mechanical performance of the welded joint. In this work, the behavior of these input and response variables aiming the development of friction stir welding process applied to steel API 5L X80 (ISO 3183 X80M) steel were studied. For this purpose, plates with 12 mm thick were welded by two passes using polycrystalline cubic bore nitrite tool. It was observed that, while keeping the welding speed constant, an increase in spindle speed and /or axial force, tends to reduce the reactive forces and the torque acting during the process by increasing of the heat generation rate. Otherwise, keeping spindle speed and axial force constants, the welding speed rising the forces and torque, allowing the welding speed plays a significant role in the heat generation rate during the process.

Abstract: Fracture mechanics approach is important for all mechanical and civil projects that might involve cracks in metallic materials, and especially for those using welding as a structural joining process. This methodology can enhance not only the design but also the service life of the structures being constructed. This paper includes detailed consideration of several practical issues related to the experimental procedures to assess the fracture toughness in high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) using the crack tip opening displacement (CTOD) parameter, specifically pipeline steels for oil and gas transportation. These considerations are important for engineers who are new in the field, or for those looking for guidelines performing different procedures during the experimentation, which usually are difficult to understand from the conventional standards. We discuss on topics including geometry selection, number of replicate tests, fatigue precracking, test procedure selection and realization, reports of results and other aspects.

Los mecanismos de falla en materiales estructurales se encuentran bajo constante investigación. Hoy en día, la implementación de sofisticados experimentos in situ en microscopía electrónica ha generado nuevo conocimiento en diferentes campos como la química, física y la ciencia de los materiales, al permitir la observación directa de una amplia variedad de fenómenos a escalas de micrones o inclusive atómica. Estos experimentos pueden envolver el control de la temperatura y la atmósfera, la aplicación de esfuerzos mecánicos, campos eléctricos y/o magnéticos, entre otras condiciones, las cuales son impuestas sobre la muestra, mientras la respuesta o evolución del sistema es registrado. Un novedoso sistema para la realización de ensayos de deformación y calentamiento in situ en un microscopio electrónico de barrido (MEB) hace posible la observación en tiempo real de fenómenos con resolución de 5 μm, produciendo datos tanto cualitativos como cuantitativos. Esta infraestructura fue usada para el estudio del mecanismo asociado al deslizamiento de contorno de grano (DCG) y su efecto en el fenómeno de agrietamiento a alta temperatura conocido como fractura por pérdida de ductilidad (Ductility-Dip Cracking, DDC). Esta metodología fue aplicada al estudio del comportamiento mecánico de los metales de aporte ERNiCrFe-7 y ERNiCr-3, usados para soldadura de aleaciones de Ni, cuando son deformados entre 700 y 1000 ºC. La susceptibilidad al DDC (límite de deformación, εmin) fue cuantificada para ambas aleaciones. Los valores de εmin para el ERNiCrFe-7 y el ERNiCr-3 fueron de 7,5 % y 16,5 %, respectivamente, confirmando la mayor resistencia del ERNiCr-3.

Failure mechanisms in structural materials have been under investigation for several years. Nowadays, the implementation of sophisticated in situ electron microscopy tests is providing new insights in several fields of chemistry, physics, and materials science by allowing direct observation of a wide variety of phenomena at submicron and even atomic scale. These experiments may involve controlled temperature and atmosphere, mechanical loading, magnetic and/or electric field among other conditions that are imposed to the sample while its response or evolution is registered. A novel in situ high temperature-strain test into a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) makes possible the real-time observation of phenomena with resolution of 5 μm, providing qualitative and quantitative data. This setup was used to study the Grain Boundary Sliding (GBS) mechanism and its effect on the high temperature cracking phenomenon known as Ductility-Dip Cracking (DDC). This methodology was applied to study the mechanical behavior of Ni-base filler metal alloys ERNiCrFe-7 and ERNiCr-3, which were evaluated between 700 and 1000 ºC. The DDC susceptibility (threshold strain, εmin) for both alloys was quantified. The εmin of ERNiCrFe-7 and ERNiCr-3 alloys was 7.5 % and 16.5 %, respectively, confirming the better resistance of ERNiCr-3 to DDC.

A mesa suporte das peças a serem unidas normalmente se deforma durante o processo de soldagem por atrito com pino não consumível devido às altas cargas envolvidas. Consequentemente, a obtenção de juntas soldadas com penetração total, bem como a vida útil da amostra e da ferramenta podem ser afetadas, causando paradas não programadas e comprometendo a produtividade do processo e deslocando mão de obra para uma etapa de manutenção não prevista na cadeia do processo de soldagem. Este trabalho apresenta uma mesa de apoio com depósito cerâmico para o processamento e soldagem por atrito com pino não consumível. Para o desenvolvimento da mesa foram testados quatro depósitos cerâmicos, sob uma placa de aço, dos quais o de menor porosidade atingiu melhor desempenho. Essa mesa permitiu a realização de juntas soldadas com penetração completa de aços inoxidáveis duplex; resistir às altas cargas durante a soldagem de aços baixa liga alta resistência e realizar juntas dissimilares aço-alumínio, sem aderência do material mais macio à mesa suporte; bem como outras importantes características como confinar o calor e o metal plastificado, assim como determinar parâmetros de soldagem estáveis.

Usually, the workpiece is deformed during the friction stir welding, due to high applied loads. Consequently, fully and consolidated friction stir welded joints as well as tools life time can be affected promoting unscheduled manufacturing stops which favorites decreasing the welding productivity. Furthermore, the workforce is dislocated to not predicted maintenance steps. This work proposes the development of a special ceramic backing to joining and processing material using FSW technologies. Four ceramic deposits were tested over a steel plate , which allowed selecting those with less porosity and, thus, better strength. This backing allowed to obtain full penetration welds for duplex stainless steels, to resist high forces during engage for high strength low alloy steels and to obtain consolidated aluminum-steel dissimilar joints. For the last one, there was not adherence of the soft material in workpiece. In addition, the ceramic backing allowed confine the heat and plasticized metal, as well as developing established welding parameters.

Os resultados bem-sucedidos apresentados na literatura acerca da soldagem por atrito com pino não consumível das juntas alumínio-aço, desconsideram o aspecto e formação de defeitos na junta como pontos de referência para sua avaliação. Igualmente aumenta a controvérsia acerca da presença de compostos intermetálicos do tipo Fe xAl y, somado à falta de informação sobre sua origem. O objetivo deste trabalho é determinar parâmetros adequados para a obtenção de juntas alumínio-aço livres de defeitos e sua relação com a formação de fases deletérias durante a soldagem por atrito com pino. Foram obtidas juntas soldadas consolidadas e foi determinada a microestrutura resultante destas juntas soldadas da liga de alumínio 6063-T5 e aço AISI SAE 1020. Utilizou-se uma ferramenta de carbeto de tungstênio (WC-14Co) a velocidades de rotação e de avanço de 300 rpm e 150 mm.min-1, respectivamente. Foram empregados deslocamentos da ferramenta de +0,5; +1,0 e +1,5 mm. Os resultados realçam a importância do aporte energético na obtenção de juntas alumínio-aço com aspecto superficial e penetração adequados. A análise microestrutural revela a formação de sete regiões na junta soldada, destacando a zona termo-mecanicamente afetada no lado do aço, uma banda de grãos ultra finos de ferrita e a ausência de compostos intermetálicos na interface alumínio-aço.

The successful results presented in the literature about the FSW aluminum-steel joints, ignore the appearance and formation of defects at the joint as reference points for evaluation. It also increases the controversy about the presence of intermetallic compounds of the type Fe xAl y, and the lack of information about its origin. The objective of this study is to determine appropriate parameters for obtaining free defects aluminum-steel joints and their relation to the formation of deleterious phases during the FSW. Consolidated welded joints were obtained and determined the microstructure in aluminum alloy 6063-T5 and AISI SAE 1020 welds joints. It was used a tungsten carbide tool (WC-14Co) at rotation and weld speeds of 300 rpm and 150 mm. min-1, with tool offset of +0.5, +1.0 and +1.5 mm. The results highlight the importance of heat input in the Al-steel welding surface appearance and penetration depth. The microstructural analysis reveals the formation of seven regions in the weld, highlighting the thermo-mechanically affected zone on the steel, a band of ultra fine grains of ferrite and the absence of intermetallic compounds in the Al-steel interface.

Juntas soldadas por atrito com pino foram obtidas para o aço inoxidável duplex UNS S32205. Os lados de avanço e retrocesso da junta soldada evidenciaram diferentes características microestruturais, o lado de avanço apresentou um maior grau de refinamento de grãos, principal mecanismo de aumento de dureza. A caracterização microestrutural foi realizada através de microscopia ótica, eletrônica de varredura e de transmissão. A zona termomecanicamente afetada apresentou ilhas de austenita deformadas em matriz ferrítica. A zona misturada apresentou uma microestrutura fina completamente recristalizada, permitindo um impressionante aumento de dureza, na junta soldada associado a uma melhoria na resistência à corrosão. Avaliações por microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e ensaios de corrosão corroboraram para a ausência de fases secundárias deletérias na junta soldada.

UNS S32205 duplex stainless steel welds were performed by friction stir welding (FSW). Advancing and retreating sides showed distinct characteristics in the welded joint. The advancing side shows the strongest grain refinement which is corroborated by microhardness measurements. The microstructure characterization was carried out by optical, scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The thermomechanically affected zone displays austenite islands deformed in a ferrite matrix. The stir zone (SZ) showed a fine recrystallized microstructure providing an outstanding increase of hardness associated with better corrosion performance. Transmission electron microscopy and corrosion tests have corroborated the absence of intermetallic phases on welded joints.