RESUMO A madeira de eucalipto de árvores adultas é utilizada para os mais diversos fins, entretanto, a utilização desta madeira de árvores de idade precoce é limitada. O objetivo foi caracterizar e propor utilizações para madeira de eucalipto com dois anos de idade. Seis clones de Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla, com dois anos de idade, foram selecionados e suas características anatômicas, ultraestruturais, físicas e mecânicas avaliadas. A madeira do clone A apresentou fibras mais robustas e de melhor arranjo microfibrilar, resultando em melhores propriedades mecânicas e, por isto, melhor desempenho para uso estrutural. O clone F apresentou madeira com pouca variação da densidade básica no sentido radial, facilitando sua trabalhabilidade e, com o clone B, apresentou menor coeficiente de anisotropia e, por isto, a madeira é recomendada para locais com alta variação de umidade. A heterogeneidade das características da madeira dos clones avaliados corrobora a necessidade estudos por clone para uma sua melhor utilização.

ABSTRACT Eucalyptus wood from adult trees is used for several purposes; however, the wood of younger trees has limited use. This study aims to characterize and propose uses of two-year-old eucalyptus wood. Six two-year-old Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla clones have been selected and their anatomical, ultrastructural, physical and mechanical wood characteristics evaluated. The wood of Clone A shows more robust fibers with better microfibril arrangement, resulting in better mechanical properties, and therefore, a better performance for structural use. Clone F showed a low variation of wood basic density in the radial direction, facilitating its machinability, and with the Clone B, showed a lower anisotropy, and therefore, the wood is recommended for locations with high variations of humidity. The heterogeneity of the wood characteristics of the evaluated clones confirms the need for further studies, to choose those most adequate to each use.

Abstract Introduction: The use of wood-plastic composites (WPCs) has been limited due to their low impact strength and high density compared to natural wood. Objective: To characterize the cellular morphology and density of WPCs prepared with virgin and recycled polyethylene, and Pinus radiata wood. Materials and methods: The polymer and the foamed WPCs were manufactured by an extrusion process. The virgin and recycled high-density polyethylene was mixed separately with P. radiata wood. The plastic/wood ratios were 80/20 and 70/30, with an endothermic foaming agent (Hydrocerol 1700 at 1 and 3 %), a coupling agent (Licocene 4351), and a lubricating agent (Licolub H12) added. Results and discussion: The density of virgin polymer, with 1 and 3 % foaming agent, was reduced by 39 and 20 %, respectively, but in the recycled polymer the reduction was 18 and 23 %, respectively. In the foamed WPCs, the reduction was less than 10 %. The foamed composites had smaller bubble diameter and higher cell density. The void fraction was higher in the virgin polymer at 3 % foaming. Conclusion: The use of a foaming agent gave better physical properties to the composites.

Resumen Introducción: El uso de los compuestos madera plástico (WPC, por sus siglas en inglés) ha sido limitado, debido a su baja resistencia al impacto y alta densidad en comparación con la madera natural. Objetivo: Caracterizar la morfología celular y la densidad del WPC preparado con polietileno virgen y reciclado, y madera de Pinus radiata. Materiales y métodos: El polímero y los WPC espumados se fabricaron por un proceso de extrusión. El polietileno de alta densidad virgen y reciclado se mezcló de forma separada con madera de P. radiata. Las proporciones plástico/madera fueron 80/20 y 70/30, agente espumante endotérmico Hydrocerol 1700 al 1 y 3 %, agente acoplante Licocene 4351, y Licolub H12 como agente lubricante. Resultados y discusión: La densidad del polímero virgen, con espumante al 1 y 3 %, se redujo 39 y 20 %, respectivamente; en el polímero reciclado disminuyó 18 y 23 %, respectivamente. En los WPC espumados, la reducción fue menor de 10 %. Los compuestos espumados tuvieron menor diámetro de las burbujas y mayor densidad celular. La fracción de vacío fue mayor en el polímero virgen al 3 % de espumante. Conclusión: El uso de espumante otorgó mejores propiedades físicas a los compuestos.

Resumo: O objetivo deste trabalho foi testar uma nova metodologia para avaliar a resistência das árvores aos danos causados pelos ventos e determinar as características que aumentam a resistência dos clones a estes danos. A resistência das árvores à ruptura e a tensão de crescimento, assim como a densidade básica, ultraestrutura, anatomia e propriedades mecânicas da madeira foram avaliadas em sete clones de Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla, recolhidos de uma região com uma alta incidência de danos provocados pelo vento. O coeficiente de correlação de Pearson entre a resistência à ruptura da árvore e a relação entre a área danificada pelos ventos e a área total plantada foi -0,839, mostrando a eficiência da metodologia adotada e que alta resistência à quebra resulta em baixa área afetada por danos pelos ventos. Árvores com uma alta densidade básica, fração da parede celular, módulo de elasticidade da lamela média e fibras, dureza da fibra, módulo de ruptura, tensão de crescimento e baixo ângulo microfibrilar e altura e largura dos raios apresentaram maior resistência a danos causados pelo vento. Portanto, a seleção de clones com estas características pode reduzir a incidência de danos causados por ventos em plantações de eucalipto.

Abstract: The objective of this work was to test a new methodology to assess the resistance of trees to wind damage and determine the characteristics that increase clone resistance to winds. Tree resistance to breakage, basic density, ultrastructure, anatomy, mechanical properties, and wood growth stress have been evaluated in seven Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla clones, collected from a region with a high incidence of wind damage. The Pearson correlation coefficient between the tree resistance to breakage and the ratio between the area damaged by the winds and the total planted area was -0.839, showing the efficiency of the methodology adopted and that high breaking strength results in a smaller area affected by wind damage. Trees with a high basic density, cell wall fraction, modulus of elasticity of the middle lamella and fibers, fiber hardness, modulus of rupture, growth stress and low microfibril angle and height and width of the rays showed greater resistance to wind damage. Therefore, the selection of clones with these features may reduce the incidence of damage by winds in Eucalyptus plantations.

RESUMO Árvores de eucalipto de rápido crescimento podem ser danificadas por ventos, principalmente 24 meses após o plantio, mas a baixa qualidade das fibras dessa madeira dificulta a produção de polpa celulósica. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a utilização destes materiais para a fabricação de polpa celulósica em misturas com madeira de árvores de sete anos de idade. Polpa celulósica branqueada foi produzida com 100, 95, 85, 75 e 0% de madeira de árvores de dois clones de Eucalyptus grandis x Eucalyptus urophylla com sete anos de idade, relacionada com a idade de corte. Madeira de árvores de dois anos de idade, mais susceptíveis a danos por ventos, foi utilizada para completar cada tratamento. Um disco de espessura de 5 cm foi retirado na altura do peito (1,3 m) em cada árvore para a caracterização anatômica e ultra-estrutural. As árvores com sete anos apresentaram maior frequência de vasos, fibras com maior comprimento, fração parede, módulo de elasticidade e dureza e menor ângulo microfibrilar. O refino nas polpas diminuiu a opacidade e o volume específico e aumentou a resistência a passagem do ar e as propriedades mecânicas. A adição de madeira de dois anos de idade na produção de polpa celulósica reduziu a resistência mecânica e opacidade e aumentou a resistência à passagem de ar. A proporção da madeira de dois anos de idade, que pode ser utilizado na produção de polpa celulósica variou com o clone, parâmetro avaliado e intensidade do refino. No entanto, a polpa celulósica produzida com 5% de madeira de dois anos de idade, e 95% de madeira de sete anos de idade, foi semelhante aquela com 100% de madeira de árvores de sete anos de idade. Portanto, cinco por cento de madeira de dois anos de idade pode ser utilizado para a produção de polpa celulósica sem perda de qualidade.

ABSTRACT Wind may damage eucalyptus trees, especially 24 months after planting, which can reduce wood fiber quality and hinder pulp production. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of these materials in mixtures with wood from seven-year-old trees to produce pulp. Bleached pulp was produced using 100, 95, 85, 75 and 0% wood from seven-year-old eucalyptus trees, related to cutting age. Wood from two-year-old trees, when trees are most susceptible to damage by wind, completed each treatment. A 5 cm thick disc was taken from breast height (1.3m) on each tree for anatomical and ultrastructural characterization. The seven-year-old wood had lower vessel frequency and fibers with a longer length, higher cell wall fraction, higher modulus of elasticity and hardness, and a lower microfibril angle. Pulp refining decreased the opacity and specific volume, increased air resistance and improved mechanical properties. The addition of two-year-old wood to produce pulp reduced the mechanical properties and opacity, and increased the air resistance of the paper. The proportion of two-year-old wood that can be used in pulp production varied with the clone, parameter, and refining level. However, the pulp produced with 5% wood from two-year-old trees and 95% wood from seven-year-old trees was similar to that with 100% seven-year-old wood. Therefore, 5% two-year-old wood can be used to produce pulp without quality losses.

Six Eucalyptus nitens families from two soils in the 8th Region of Chile, clay and trumao, were studied to select families with lower degree of cracking. Cracking parameters evaluated at mesoscale, next to nanomechanical properties of the celular structure, were related in a representative volumen element of these tree, such as percentage of cracked area of trees relating them to the ductility ratio (E/H) obtained of values of modulus of elasticity (E) and hardness (H) by nanoindentation and the modulus of resilience (u r) of the middle lamella and S2-layer of the cell wall were analyzed. Furthermore, it was determined that the difference between the modulus of resilience (∆u r) of the middle lamella with the S2-layer is a good indicator of the interfacial stress inducing fractures in the S1-layer. Using nanocharacterization it was established that the middle lamella is more brittle and susceptible to generate microcracks that spread to meso scale. The ∆u r between the middle lamella and S2 layer shown to be lower in families 2 and 5. These families showed to have lower levels of shear stress at the interface between the middle lamella and S2-layer, therefore the amount of microcracks that occur is lower, there is a good relationship with the percentage of measured cracks in these families of Eucalyptus nitens. According these findings, the families that show low degree of interfacial tensión at celular level and low cracks index were family 2 and family 5.

Seis familias de Eucalyptus nitens provenientes de dos suelos, arcilloso y trumao, localizados en la 8va Región de Chile, fueron estudiadas para seleccionar aquellas familias con menor grado de agrietamiento. Se relacionaron parámetros de agrietamiento evaluados a mesoescala con las propiedades nanomecánicas en un elemento de volumen representativo de estos árboles. Para segregar las familias se analizó el porcentaje de área de grietas de estos árboles junto a la razón de ductilidad (E/H) obtenidos del módulo de elasticidad (E) y dureza (H) mediante la técnica de nanoindentación y el módulo de resiliencia (u r) ambos en la lamela media y capa S2 de la pared celular. Además, se determinó la diferencia entre el módulo de resiliencia entre la lamela media y la capa S2 (∆u r), como un indicador de la tensión interfacial que induce fracturas principalmente en la capa S1 de la estructura celular de la madera. La nanocaracterización permitió establecer que la lamela media es más débil y susceptible a generar microgrietas que se propagan hasta ser visibles formando grietas mayores. El parámetro ∆u r entre la lamela media y capa S2 mostró ser menor en las familias 2 y 5. Estas familias presentaron menores niveles de tensión de corte en la interface de la capa S2-lamela media, por lo tanto, la cantidad de microgrietas, existiendo una buena relación con el porcentaje de grietas medidos en las familias de Eucalyptus nitens. De acuerdo a esto, las familias segregadas con bajo grado de tensión interfacial a nivel celular y bajo nivel de agrietamiento a mesoescala, fueron las familia 2 y 5.

The objective of this study was to evaluate and correlate at macroscale the thermo-hygromechanical effect of on the nanomechanical properties of Pinus radiata D. Don and Eucalyptus nitens(Deane & Maiden)evaluated in the S2 layer of the cell wall and in the middle lamella of specimens under compression perpendicular to grain and under cyclic environmental conditions. At macroscale, 4 stress-laminated deck specimens without preservative treatment were studied for both species and 4 deck specimens of radiata pine treated with creosote. The nanomechanical properties of the cellular structure were determined using nanoindentations. The results showed that the thermo-hygromechanical effect at macroscale induced a significant increase of elastic modulus and hardness of the cellular structure during the summer season and during the second environmental cycle, with respect to the winter season and the first cycle. On the other hand, it was shown that the application of long-term compressive loads lead to a significant decrease of the elastic modulus and hardness of the cellular structure of wood and an increase in the relaxation factor, compared to the pieces submitted to free deformation.

El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar y correlacionar el efecto termo-higromecánico a macroescala de las especies de Pinus radiata D. Don y de Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) con las propiedades nanomecánicas evaluadas en la estructura celular, con el fin de visualizar el comportamiento mecánico de la capa S2 de la pared celular y de la lamela media de probetas bajo compresión perpendicular a la fibra y bajo condiciones ambientales cíclicas, considerando como caso, los puentes de tableros tensados. A macroescala, se estudiaron 4 probetas sin tratamiento preservante para ambas especies y 4 probetas de Pinus radiata tratadas con creosota. Las propiedades nanomecánicas de la estructura celular de la madera fueron determinadas por medio de nanoindentaciones. Los resultados mostraron que el módulo de elasticidad y la dureza de la estructura celular de las maderas sometidas a variaciones termo-higromecánicasen el tiempo y a condiciones de tensado, aumentaron significativamente en el verano del segundo ciclo que con respecto al invierno del primer ciclo. Por otro lado, se evidenció que el tensado de las probetas originó una reducción del módulo de elasticidad y de la dureza así como también un incremento del factor de relajación de la estructura celular de la madera con respecto la madera sin tensado, expuestas a deformación libre.

It was studied the variability in morphological, physical and thermal properties of fiber bark of Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) coming from twenty four trees, two sites and six families; using techniques such as conventional light microscopy, electron microscopy (SEM) and thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA). Such properties are relevant for a lignocellulosic fiber to have a possible industrial application as reinforcement material in a thermoplastic matrix. Significant statistical differences were detected in the fiber properties by analyzing the site of origin of the samples, family and stem height. Standing out in the results of physical properties, the average thickness of the bark layer (4.4 mm), its Specific Gravity (0.757), its morphological properties such as length/diameter of fiber (l f/d f= 69.14) and fiber presence (45%) in this material. The thermal stability of this natural fiber to 200ºC and low melting temperature of thermoplastics such as High Density Polyethylene (HDPE); indicate that the bark fibers of this species are a good option to apply as a reinforcement material in thermoplastics matrices.

Se estudió la variabilidad en las propiedades morfológicas, físicas y térmicas de la fibra de corteza de Eucalyptus nitens (Deane & Maiden) en veinticuatro árboles procedentes de dos sitios y seis familias; mediante técnicas de microscopía óptica convencional, microscopía electrónica (SEM) y análisis termo-gravimétrico (TGA). Dichas propiedades son determinantes para que una fibra lignocelulósica alcance una posible aplicación industrial como material de refuerzo en una matriz termoplástica. Se detectaron diferencias estadísticas significativas en las propiedades de la fibra al analizar el sitio de procedencia de las muestras, la familia y la altura de fuste. Destacan en los resultados de propiedades físicas el espesor promedio de la capa de corteza (4.4 mm), su peso específico (0.757), sus propiedades morfológicas tales como razón longitud/diámetro de fibra (l f/d f= 69.14) y presencia de fibra (45%) en este material. La estabilidad térmica de esta fibra natural hasta los 200ºC y la baja temperatura de fusión de termoplásticos como el polietileno de alta densidad (HDPE); indican que las fibras de corteza de esta especie son una buena opción para aplicarla como material de refuerzo en matrices termoplásticas.

The objective of the present study was to observe the morphology and characterize the mechanical properties of wood plastic composite foams. Recycled high density polyethylene was mixed with Pinus radiata D. Don (radiata pine) wood fiber of 60 mesh. The fiber concentrations were 15 and 25% by weight. The compounds were foamed with a chemical agent ACA (azodicabonamide) and MAPE (Epolene E-20) was used as a coupling agent. The composites were obtained by twin-screw extrusion. The results showed that the coupling agent has a positive effect on the adhesion of the recycled polymer and wood fiber. The density of the compounds decreases with blowing agent and the mechanical properties of hardness, impact, modulus of elasticity in bending and tension were higher for unfoamed composites. It was concluded that increasing the concentration of fiber increases the mechanical properties with the exception of impact resistance of the compounds and incorporating the blowing agent slightly.

El objetivo del presente estudio fue observar la morfología y caracterizar las propiedades mecánicas de materiales compuestos de madera y plásticos reciclados espumados. Se mezcló polietileno de alta densidad reciclado con fibra de madera de Pinus radiata D.Don (pino radiata) de 60 mesh. Las concentraciones de fibra fueron de 15 y 25% en peso, el polímero se espumó con un agente químico ACA (azodicarbonamida) y se utilizó anhídrido maleico MAPE (Epolene E-20) como agente de acoplamiento. Los compuestos se obtuvieron usando un proceso de extrusión en un equipo doble tornillo. Los resultados demostraron que el agente acoplamiento tiene un efecto positivo sobre la adherencia del polímero reciclado y la fibra de madera. La densidad de los compuestos disminuyó con el agente espumante y las propiedades mecánicas de dureza, impacto, módulo de elasticidad en flexión y tracción fueron superiores para los compuestos no espumados. Se Se concluyó que al aumentar la concentración de fibra aumentan las propiedades mecánicas de los compuestos a excepción de la tenacidad que al incorporar el agente espumante disminuyeron ligeramente.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of three nose bar pressure (TC) in the morphology of the lathe checks in Eucalyptus nitens veneers for the manufacture of plywood. Dried veneers were obtained from a peeling process, 1.8 mm thick three nose bar pressure TC1= 0.5%, TC2andTC3= 3.5%= 5%, which were obtained by adjusting the pressure bar and peeling knife of Cremonala the in a plywood plant in southern Chile. Samples were obtained randomly from the three types of veneers processed. Photographs were taken in the veneer thickness for subsequent image processing. In the morphological analysis of the cracks was evaluated: length, area and frequency in the samples for the three nose bar pressure studied. Morphological analysis of images showed that a decrease in the length and depth of the lathe check, as well as the area, when the nose bar pressure increases. Significant differences were found between 0.5%and 5%levels of nose bar pressure. This implies that increasing the nose bar pressure, through a setting that involves a smaller distance between the pressure bar and peeling knife, you get better quality veneers, more rigid and with a reduction of surface cracking in the final plywood.

El objetivo de este estudio fue evaluar el efecto de tres tasas de compresión (TC) en la morfología de grietas de debobinado en chapas de Eucalyptus nitens para la fabricación de tableros contrachapados. Chapas secas se obtuvieron desde un proceso de debobinado, con 1.8 mm de espesor a tres tasas de compresión TC1=0.5 %; TC2=3.5 % y TC3=5 %, las que se consiguieron ajustando la barra de presión y el cuchillo del torno debobinador marca Cremona de una planta de contrachapados del sur de Chile. Se obtuvieron probetas en forma aleatoria de los tres tipos de chapas procesadas. Fotografías fueron tomadas en el espesor de las chapas para el posterior procesamiento de imágenes. En el análisis morfológico de las grietas se evalúo: largo, área y frecuencia en las probetas para las tres tasas de compresión estudiadas. El análisis morfológico de imágenes mostró que existe una disminución del largo y profundidad de las grietas, así como también del área de grietas, cuando se aumenta la tasa de compresión. Diferencias significativas fueron halladas entre los niveles 0.5 % y 5 % de tasa de compresión. Esto implica que al aumentar la tasa de compresión, a través de un ajuste que involucra una menor distancia entre la barra de presión y el cuchillo debobinador, se obtienen chapas de mejor calidad, más rígidas y con una reducción del agrietamiento superficial en el tablero final.

The aim of this study was to define a representative volume element to characterize the mechanical properties of stress-laminated deck specimens of radiata pine and Eucalyptus nitens. The determination of the representative volume element allowed to identify the smallest representative section of the stress-laminated deck. For this, the nanomechanical properties of the cell walls and middle lamellas were determined by nanoindentations. This study was conducted in two phases. In the first phase, the growth ring representative of the pieces of wood under compression perpendicular to the grain was determined. In the second phase, the board representative of the stress-laminated deck specimens subjected to long-term compression loads and variable environmental conditions was determined. The results obtained in the first phase of the study showed that there was no specific tendency of the nanomechanical properties through growth rings in the cross-section of Pinus radiata D. Don and Eucalyptus nitens specimens subjected to compression loads perpendicular to the grain. In the second phase of the study, it was found that long-term compression loads in stress-laminated deck specimens mainly affect the mechanical properties of the cellular structure of exterior and central boards. Finally, the representative volume element in a stress-laminated deck specimen was found in the earlywood of the growth ring farthest to the pith in the cross section of the central board.

El objetivo de este estudio fue definir un elemento de volumen representativo para caracterizar las propiedades mecánicas de probetas de tableros tensados de Pinus radiata D. Don y de Eucalyptus nitens. La determinación del elemento de volumen representativo permitió identificar la sección más pequeña de las probetas que presenta las particularidades de este material compuesto y por consiguiente, representa a la probeta en su conjunto. Para esto, las propiedades nanomecánicas de las paredes celulares y lamela media fueron determinadas por nanoindentaciones. Este estudio se desarrolló en dos etapas. En la primera etapa, el anillo de crecimiento representativo de las piezas de madera bajo compresión perpendicular a la fibra, fue determinado. En la segunda etapa, el tablón representativo de la probeta de tablero tensado sometido a compresión a largo plazo, fue determinado. Los resultados de la primera etapa, mostraron que no existe una tendencia específica de las propiedades nanomecánicas a través de los anillos de crecimiento en la sección transversal de las piezas de Pinus radiata D. Don y Eucalyptus nitens bajo compresión perpendicular a la fibra. En la segunda etapa, se estableció que los esfuerzos de compresión a largo plazo en la probeta de tablero tensado principalmente afectaron las propiedades nanomecánicas de la estructura celular de los tablones exterior y central de la probeta. Lo anterior permitió establecer que el elemento de volumen representativo de una probeta de tablero tensado se localizó en la madera temprana del anillo de crecimiento más alejado a la médula en la sección transversal del tablón central.