ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe the prevalence and predictors of childhood anemia in an Amazonian population-based birth cohort study. METHODS: Prevalence of maternal anemia was estimated at delivery (hemoglobin [Hb] concentration < 110 g/L) in women participating in the MINA-Brazil birth cohort study and in their children, examined at ages one, two (Hb < 110 g/L), and five (Hb < 115 g/L). Moreover, ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor, and C-reactive protein concentrations were measured in mothers at delivery and in their 1- and 2-year-old children to estimate the prevalence of iron deficiency and its contribution to anemia, while adjusting for potential confounders by multiple Poisson regression analysis (adjusted relative risk [RRa]). RESULTS: The prevalence 95% confidence interval (CI) of maternal anemia, iron deficiency, and iron-deficiency anemia at delivery were 17.3% (14.0–21.0%), 42.6% (38.0–47.2%), and 8.7% (6.3–11.6)%, respectively (n = 462). At one year of age (n = 646), 42.2% (38.7–45.8%) of the study children were anemic, 38.4% (34.6–42.3%) were iron-deficient, and 26.3 (23.0–29.9) had iron-deficiency anemia. At two years of age (n = 761), these values decreased to 12.8% (10.6–15.2%), 18.1% (15.5–21.1%), and 4.1% (2.8–5.7%), respectively; at five years of age (n = 655), 5.2% (3.6–7.2%) were anemic. Iron deficiency (RRa = 2.19; 95%CI: 1.84–2.60) and consumption of ultra-processed foods (UPF) (RRa = 1.56; 95%CI: 1.14–2.13) were significant contributors to anemia at 1 year, after adjusting for maternal schooling. At 2 years, anemia was significantly associated with maternal anemia at delivery (RRa: 1.67; 95%CI: 1.17–2.39), malaria since birth (2.25; 1.30–3.87), and iron deficiency (2.15; 1.47–3.15), after adjusting for children's age and household wealth index. CONCLUSIONS: Anemia continues to be highly prevalent during pregnancy and early childhood in the Amazon. Public health policies should address iron deficiency, UPF intake, maternal anemia, and malaria to prevent and treat anemia in Amazonian children.

RESUMO OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi descrever a prevalência e os preditores de anemia na infância em um estudo de coorte de nascimentos de base populacional amazônica. MÉTODOS: Estimou-se a prevalência de anemia materna no parto (concentração de hemoglobina [Hb] < 110 g/L) em mulheres participantes do estudo de coorte de nascimentos MINA-Brasil e em seus filhos, examinados nas idades um, dois (Hb < 110 g/L) e cinco anos (Hb < 115 g/L). Além disso, as concentrações de ferritina, receptor solúvel de transferrina e proteína C reativa foram medidas em mães no parto e em seus filhos de 1 e 2 anos de idade para estimar a prevalência de deficiência de ferro e sua contribuição para anemia, ajustando para potenciais fatores de confusão por análise de regressão múltipla de Poisson (risco relativo ajustado [RRa]). RESULTADOS: As prevalências com intervalo de confiança (IC) de 95% de anemia materna, deficiência de ferro e anemia ferropriva no parto foram de 17,3% (14,0–21,0%), 42,6% (38,0–47,2%) e 8,7% (6,3–11,6%), respectivamente (n = 462). No primeiro ano de idade (n = 646), 42,2% (38,7–45,8%) das crianças estudadas eram anêmicas, 38,4% (34,6–42,3%) eram deficientes em ferro e 26,3 (23,0–29,9%) tinham anemia ferropriva. Aos dois anos de idade (n = 761), esses valores diminuíram para 12,8% (10,6–15,2%), 18,1% (15,5–21,1%) e 4,1% (2,8–5,7%), respectivamente; aos cinco anos de idade (n = 655), 5,2% (3,6–7,2%) eram anêmicos. A deficiência de ferro (RRa = 2,19, IC95%: 1,84–2,60) e consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados (AUP) (RRa = 1,56, IC95%: 1,14–2,13) foram contribuintes significantes para anemia no 1° ano de idade, após ajuste para escolaridade materna. Aos 2 anos, a anemia associou-se significativamente à anemia materna no parto (RRa = 1,67; IC95%: 1,17–2,39), malária desde o nascimento (2,25; 1,30–3,87) e deficiência de ferro (2,15; 1,47–3,15), após ajuste para idade das crianças e índice de riqueza familiar. CONCLUSÕES: A anemia continua sendo altamente prevalente durante a gravidez e a primeira infância na Amazônia. Políticas públicas de saúde devem abordar a deficiência de ferro, o consumo de AUP, a anemia materna e a malária para prevenir e tratar a anemia em crianças amazônicas.

The naturally occurring clonal diversity among field isolates of the major human malaria parasite Plasmodium vivax remained unexplored until the early 1990s, when improved molecular methods allowed the use of blood samples obtained directly from patients, without prior in vitro culture, for genotyping purposes. Here we briefly review the molecular strategies currently used to detect genetically distinct clones in patient-derived P. vivax samples, present evidence that multiple-clone P. vivax infections are commonly detected in areas with different levels of malaria transmission and discuss possible evolutionary and epidemiological consequences of the competition between genetically distinct clones in natural human infections. We suggest that, when two or more genetically distinct clones are present in the same host, intra-host competition for limited resources may select for P. vivax traits that represent major public health challenges, such as increased virulence, increased transmissibility and antimalarial drug resistance.

We analyzed prospectively 326 laboratory-confirmed, uncomplicated malarial infections (46.3% due to Plasmodium vivax, 35.3% due to P. falciparum, and 18.4% mixed-species infections) diagnosed in 162 rural Amazonians aged 5-73 years. Thirteen symptoms (fever, chills, sweating, headache, myalgia, arthralgia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, cough, dyspnea, and diarrhea) were scored using a structured questionnaire. Headache (59.8%), fever (57.1%), and myalgia (48.4%) were the most frequent symptoms. Ninety-six (29.4%) episodes, all of them diagnosed during cross-sectional surveys of the whole study population (96.9% by molecular technique only), were asymptomatic. Of 93 symptom-less infections left untreated, only 10 became symptomatic over the next two months following diagnosis. Fever was perceived as " intense " in 52.6% of 230 symptomatic malaria episodes, with no fever reported in 19.1% episodes although other symptoms were present. We found significant differences in the prevalence and perceived intensity of fever and other clinical symptoms in relation to parasite load at the time of diagnosis and patient's age, cumulative exposure to malaria, recent malaria morbidity, and species of malaria parasite. These factors are all likely to affect the effectiveness of malaria control strategies based on active or passive detection of febrile subjects in semi-immune populations.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence and risk factors for wheezing disorders in early childhood in São Paulo, Brazil, the largest metropolitan area of South America. METHODS: A population-based cross-sectional survey of 1132 children aged 6-59 months was carried out between 1995 and 1996 to obtain information on recent wheezing and on independent variables such as demographic, socioeconomic, environmental, maternal and nutritional variables and immunization status. Intestinal parasitic infections were diagnosed using standard techniques. Multiple unconditional logistic regression was used to describe associations between outcome and independent variables. FINDINGS: The prevalence of recent wheezing (one or more reported episodes in the past 12 months) was 12.5%; 93% of children with wheezing were also reported to have a medical diagnosis of asthma. Recent wheezing was associated with low per capita income, poor quality of housing, day-care attendance, low birth weight and infection with intestinal helminths. CONCLUSION: Wheezing in early childhood in São Paulo, although more common than in most developing countries, remains less prevalent than in urban areas of industrialized countries. Low income and conditions associated with poverty (poor housing, low birth weight and parasitic infections) are some of the main risk factors for wheezing disorders among young children in this city.

OBJETIVO: Investigar la prevalencia y los factores de riesgo de sufrir cuadros con sibilancias en la primera infancia en São Paulo, Brasil, el área metropolitana más extensa de América del Sur. MÉTODOS: Entre 1995 y 1996 se llevó a cabo una encuesta transversal basada en la población entre 1132 niños de 6-59 meses con objeto de obtener información sobre los antecedentes recientes de sibilancias y sobre variables independientes relacionadas con características demográficas, socioeconómicas y ambientales, con el estado de la madre y la nutrición y con el estado de inmunización. Se diagnosticaron los casos de parasitosis intestinal mediante técnicas de uso común. Para describir las relaciones entre las variables dependientes y las independientes se utilizó el método de regresión múltiple incondicional. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de sibilancias recientes (notificación de uno o más episodios en los 12 últimos meses) fue del 12,5%; al 93% de los niños con sibilancias se les había diagnosticado también asma. Las sibilancias recientes se asociaron a unos ingresos per cápita bajos, una vivienda de calidad deficiente, la asistencia diurna, un bajo peso al nacer y la presencia de infección por helmintos intestinales. CONCLUSIÓN: La prevalencia de sibilancias en la primera infancia en la ciudad de São Paulo, aunque superior a la de la mayoría de los países en desarrollo, sigue siendo menor que en las zonas urbanas de los países industrializados. Los ingresos bajos y los problemas asociados a la pobreza (vivienda deficiente, bajo peso al nacer e infecciones parasitarias) son algunos de los principales factores de riesgo de trastornos causantes de sibilancias entre los niños pequeños en esa ciudad.

OBJECTIF: Etudier la prévalence et les facteurs de risque des épisodes de respiration sifflante chez le jeune enfant à São Paulo (Brésil), la plus grande métropole d'Amérique du Sud. MÉTHODES: Une enquête transversale portant sur 1132 enfants de 6 à 59 mois a été réalisée dans la population entre septembre 1995 et septembre 1996 afin d'obtenir des informations sur les épisodes récents de respiration sifflante et sur des variables indépendantes telles que variables démographiques, socio-économiques, environnementales, maternelles et nutritionnelles et statut vaccinal. Les parasitoses intestinales ont été diagnostiquées selon les méthodes classiques. On a utilisé la régression logistique multiple non conditionnelle pour décrire les associations entre les observations et les variables indépendantes. RÉSULTATS: La prévalence des épisodes récents de respiration sifflante (un ou plusieurs épisodes rapportés au cours des 12 derniers mois) était de 12,5 % ; chez 93 % des enfants atteints, un diagnostic d'asthme était également rapporté. Les épisodes récents de respiration sifflante étaient associés aux variables suivantes : faible revenu par habitant, qualité médiocre de l'habitat, fréquentation d'une crèche, faible poids de naissance et helminthiases intestinales. CONCLUSION: Les épisodes de respiration sifflante chez le jeune enfant à São Paulo, bien que plus répandus que dans la plupart des pays en développement, ont une prévalence plus faible que dans les zones urbaines des pays industrialisés. Un faible revenu et des facteurs associés à la pauvreté (qualité médiocre de l'habitat, faible poids de naissance et parasitoses) figurent parmi les principaux facteurs de risque de respiration sifflante chez les jeunes enfants de cette ville.

Estimativas de diversidade e diferenciação genética, obtidas com a tipagem dos genes polimórficos que codificam as proteínas de superfície de merozoítos 1 (Msp-1) e 2 (Msp-2) foram comparadas em 345 isolados pertencentes a sete populações de Plasmodium falciparum de três continentes. Os dois loci produziram estimativas semelhantes de diversidade genética para cada população, porém com padrões distintos de diferenciação entre populações, sugerindo que a seleção natural nestes loci, em vez da dinâmica de transmissão de P. falciparum, determina a variação de freqüências alélicas entre populações.

Genetic diversity and differentiation, inferred by typing the polymorphic genes coding for the merozoite surface proteins 1 (Msp-1) and 2 (Msp-2), were compared for 345 isolates belonging to seven Plasmodium falciparum populations from three continents. Both loci yielded similar estimates of genetic diversity for each population, but rather different patterns of between-population differentiation, suggesting that natural selection on these loci, rather than the transmission dynamics of P. falciparum, determines the variation in allele frequencies among populations.

OBJETIVO: Apresenta-se um modelo matemático mostrando como esse instrumento pode ser importante para descrever a transmissão de malária. MÉTODOS: Baseado no modelo proposto previamente, foram quantificados os efeitos de dois fatores que podem afetar a transmissão da malaria: a temperatura ambiente e as condições socioeconômicas locais. RESULTADOS/CONCLUSÕES: A quantificação foi feita estudando o modelo proposto no estado estacionário e na sua dinâmica. Dependendo do nível de risco de malária, os principais efeitos na transmissão de malária são devidos à temperatura ambiente ou às condições socioeconômicas.

OBJECTIVE: To show how a mathematical model can be used to describe and to understand the malaria transmission. METHODS: The effects on malaria transmission due to the impact of the global temperature changes and prevailing social and economic conditions in a community were assessed based on a previously presented compartmental model, which describes the overall transmission of malaria. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The assessments were made from the scenarios produced by the model both in steady state and dynamic analyses. Depending on the risk level of malaria, the effects on malaria transmission can be predicted by the temperature ambient or local social and-economic conditions.

OBJETIVO: Apresenta-se um modelo matemático mostrando como esse instrumento pode ser importante para descrever a transmissão de malária. MÉTODOS: Baseado no modelo proposto previamente, foram quantificados os efeitos de dois fatores que podem afetar a transmissão da malaria: a temperatura ambiente e as condições socioeconômicas locais. RESULTADOS/CONCLUSÕES: A quantificação foi feita estudando o modelo proposto no estado estacionário e na sua dinâmica. Dependendo do nível de risco de malária, os principais efeitos na transmissão de malária são devidos à temperatura ambiente ou às condições socioeconômicas.

OBJECTIVE: To show how a mathematical model can be used to describe and to understand the malaria transmission. METHODS: The effects on malaria transmission due to the impact of the global temperature changes and prevailing social and economic conditions in a community were assessed based on a previously presented compartmental model, which describes the overall transmission of malaria. RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS: The assessments were made from the scenarios produced by the model both in steady state and dynamic analyses. Depending on the risk level of malaria, the effects on malaria transmission can be predicted by the temperature ambient or local social and-economic conditions.

The merozoite surface protein-1 (MSP-1) locus of Plasmodium falciparum codes for a major asexual blood-stage antigen currently proposed as a major malaria vaccine candidate. The protein, however, shows extensive polymorphism, which may compromise its use in sub-unit vaccines. Here we compare the patterns of allelic diversity at the MSP-1 locus in wild isolates from three epidemiologically distinct malaria-endemic areas: the hypoendemic southwestern Brazilian Amazon (n = 54), the mesoendemic southern Vietnam (n = 238) and the holoendemic northern Tanzania (n = 79). Fragments of the variable blocks 2, 4a, 4b and 6 or 10 of this single-copy gene were amplified by the polymerase chain reaction, and 24 MSP-1 gene types were defined as unique combinations of allelic types in each variable block. Ten different MSP-1 types were identified in Brazil, 23 in Vietnam and 13 in Tanzania. The proportion of genetically mixed infections (isolates with parasites carrying more than one MSP-1 version) ranged from 39% in Brazil to 44% in Vietnam and 60% in Tanzania. The vast majority (90%) of the typed parasite populations from Brazil and Tanzania belonged to the same seven most frequent MSP-1 gene types. In contrast, these seven gene types corresponded to only 61% of the typed parasite populations from Vietnam. Non-random associations were found between allelic types in blocks 4a and 6 among Vietnamese isolates, the same pattern being observed in independent studies performed in 1994, 1995 and 1996. These results suggest that MSP-1 is under selective pressure in the local parasite population. Nevertheless, the finding that similar MSP-1 type frequencies were found in 1994 and 1996 argues against the prominence of short-term frequency-dependent immune selection of MSP-1 polymorphisms. Non-random associations between MSP-1 allelic types, however, were not detected among isolates from Brazil and Tanzania. A preliminary analysis of the distribution of MSP-1 gene types per host among isolates from Tanzania, but not among those from Brazil and Vietnam, shows significant deviation from that expected under the null hypothesis of independent distribution of parasites carrying different gene types in the human hosts. Some epidemiological consequences of these findings are discussed

Exames parasitológicos por meio da técnica de sedimentação por gravidade foram feitos em amostras fecais de 111 índios Karitiana, do Estado de Rondônia, na Amazônia brasileira. Encontraram-se parasitas intestinais em 43 amostras (38,7%). Ascaris lumbricoides foi o parasita mais prevalente (18,9%). As contagens de ovos em amostras positivas para Ascaris sugeriram uma distribuição superdispersa das cargas parasitárias na população hospedeira. Encontrou-se uma distribuição etária incomum de parasitas intestinais entre os índios Karitiana: a maior prevalência (60%) foi detectada na faixa etária entre 12 e 16 anos

Gravity sedimentation parasitological examinations were performed in stool samples from 111 Karitiana Indians from Rondônia State, Brazilian Amazon Basin. Intestinal parasites were found in 43 samples (38.7%). Ascaris lumbricoides was the most prevalent helminth species (18.9%). Egg counts in samples positive for Ascaris suggested an overdispersed distribution of worm burdens in the host population. Age-distribution pattern of intestinal parasites among Karitiana Indians was found to be rather unusual: the highest prevalence (60.0%) was detected in the 12-to 16-year-old age group

Com o objetivo de descrever a prevalência de anemia na população de uma área endêmica de malária - o distrito de Candeias, localidade periurbana do Município de Porto Velho, no Estado de Rondônia, Amazônia Ocidental Brasileira, - uma amostra casual de 1.068 indivíduos (14,1% da população total) de todas as idades submeteu-se à dosagem de hemoglobina e à microscopia em gota espessa para diagnóstico de malária. O diagnóstico de anemia foi positivo em 299 indivíduos (28,0% da amostra), sendo as maiores prevalências encontradas em crianças com idade entre 6 meses e um ano (70,0%) e entre um e 6 anos (38,4%), além de gestantes (41,2%), 7/17) e pacientes com malária (44,4%, 8/18). Realizaram-se exames parasitológicos de fazes em amostra voluntária de 476 indivíduos (44,6% da população amostral), dos quais 118 (26,3%) foram positivos. Nessa amostra voluntária, não houve diferença significante na prevalência de anemia entre indivíduos parasitados e não-parasitados. Acima de 14 anos de idade, a prevalência de anemia foi tanto maior quanto mais recente o último episódio de malária referido pelos pacientes. Nesta faixa etária, economicamente produtiva, destaca-se o papel da malária entre as causas subjacentes à anemia.

With the purpose of describing the prevalence rate of anaemia among inhabitants of a malaria endemic area - Candeias district, a periurban locality near Porto Velho, in Rondônia State, Brazilian Amazon Basin - a random population sample comprehending 1,068 individuals of all age groups (14.1% of the total population) was screened for anaemia (measurement of blood haemoglobin concentration) and malaria (Giemsa-stained thick-smear microscopy). Two-hundred and ninety-nine individuals (28.0% of the sample) were found to be anaemic, using the cut-off haemoglobin values proposed by the World Health Organization for each age group. Highest prevalence rates were found among children with ages varying from 6 months to 1 year (70.0%) and from 1 to 6 years (38.4%), as well as in pregnant women (41.2%, 7/17) and malaria patients (44.4%, 8/18). Parasitological stoll examinations were made on a voluntary sample of 476 individuals (44.6% of the sample population); of these, 118 (26.8%) were positive. Eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides, the most frequent intestinal parasite in this population sample, was detected in 67 stool samples (14.1%); only 27 patients (5.7%) eliminated Ancylostomidae eggs. In this voluntary sample, no significant difference in anaemia prevalence rates between parasite carriers and non-parasited individuals was detected. On the other hand, the more recent the last malarial episode referred to by the patients, the ligher prevalence rate of anaemia in individuals above the age of 14 years. The role played by malaria as an underlying cause of anaemia in Candeias district inhabitants, particularly in the economically active age group, is further discussed.

Com o objetivo de descrever a prevalência de anemia na população de uma área endêmica de malária - o distrito de Candeias, localidade periurbana do Município de Porto Velho, no Estado de Rondônia, Amazônia Ocidental Brasileira, - uma amostra casual de 1.068 indivíduos (14,1% da população total) de todas as idades submeteu-se à dosagem de hemoglobina e à microscopia em gota espessa para diagnóstico de malária. O diagnóstico de anemia foi positivo em 299 indivíduos (28,0% da amostra), sendo as maiores prevalências encontradas em crianças com idade entre 6 meses e um ano (70,0%) e entre um e 6 anos (38,4%), além de gestantes (41,2%), 7/17) e pacientes com malária (44,4%, 8/18). Realizaram-se exames parasitológicos de fazes em amostra voluntária de 476 indivíduos (44,6% da população amostral), dos quais 118 (26,3%) foram positivos. Nessa amostra voluntária, não houve diferença significante na prevalência de anemia entre indivíduos parasitados e não-parasitados. Acima de 14 anos de idade, a prevalência de anemia foi tanto maior quanto mais recente o último episódio de malária referido pelos pacientes. Nesta faixa etária, economicamente produtiva, destaca-se o papel da malária entre as causas subjacentes à anemia.

With the purpose of describing the prevalence rate of anaemia among inhabitants of a malaria endemic area - Candeias district, a periurban locality near Porto Velho, in Rondônia State, Brazilian Amazon Basin - a random population sample comprehending 1,068 individuals of all age groups (14.1% of the total population) was screened for anaemia (measurement of blood haemoglobin concentration) and malaria (Giemsa-stained thick-smear microscopy). Two-hundred and ninety-nine individuals (28.0% of the sample) were found to be anaemic, using the cut-off haemoglobin values proposed by the World Health Organization for each age group. Highest prevalence rates were found among children with ages varying from 6 months to 1 year (70.0%) and from 1 to 6 years (38.4%), as well as in pregnant women (41.2%, 7/17) and malaria patients (44.4%, 8/18). Parasitological stoll examinations were made on a voluntary sample of 476 individuals (44.6% of the sample population); of these, 118 (26.8%) were positive. Eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides, the most frequent intestinal parasite in this population sample, was detected in 67 stool samples (14.1%); only 27 patients (5.7%) eliminated Ancylostomidae eggs. In this voluntary sample, no significant difference in anaemia prevalence rates between parasite carriers and non-parasited individuals was detected. On the other hand, the more recent the last malarial episode referred to by the patients, the ligher prevalence rate of anaemia in individuals above the age of 14 years. The role played by malaria as an underlying cause of anaemia in Candeias district inhabitants, particularly in the economically active age group, is further discussed.