Resumen Objetivo: Identificar y sintetizar los procesos y actividades realizados por el farmacéutico en la farmacia comunitaria y hospitalaria durante la pandemia por COVID-19. Método: Revisión sistemática exploratoria en PubMed/Medline de artículos publicados hasta el 30 de junio de 2021, siguiendo las recomendaciones PRISMA para este tipo de revisiones. Los artículos incluidos se clasificaron según sus principales características y resultados, acorde con la estructura: población, concepto y contexto. Los procesos y las actividades identificados se agruparon en tres categorías: realizados en farmacia comunitaria y hospitalaria, llevados a cabo esencialmente en farmacia comunitaria y realizados esencialmente en farmacia hospitalaria. Resultados: Se identificaron 629 artículos, de los cuales se excluyeron 454 por no estar en relación con el objeto de la revisión y 81 por los criterios de exclusión; por tanto, se incluyeron 94 en la revisión y análisis. La mayoría de los estudios se desarrollaron en Europa y Estados Unidos. Entre los procesos y actividades llevados a cabo por el farmacéutico durante la pandemia, tanto en farmacia comunitaria como en hospitalaria, destacaron: atención farmacéutica, gestión eficiente y oportuna de los servicios, información y educación, apoyo psicológico, farmacovigilancia y telefarmacia. En farmacia comunitaria destacaron también los relacionados con la detección de COVID-19 y derivación de pacientes, inmunización en farmacias, recomendaciones de cuidados en el hogar e indicación farmacéutica. Entre los procesos realizados esencialmente en farmacia hospitalaria destacaron los relacionados con la participación en investigaciones de tratamientos farmacológicos, desarrollo de guías de utilización de medicamentos basadas en evidencia y manejo de medicamentos en indicaciones no aprobadas. Conclusiones: Durante la pandemia por COVID-19, los farmacéuticos han liderado e implantado procesos orientados a mitigar su impacto en la salud de la población. Atención farmacéutica, gestión eficiente y oportuna de los servicios, información y educación, apoyo psicológico, farmacovigilancia y telefarmacia fueron los principales procesos y actividades realizados en farmacia comunitaria y hospitalaria durante la pandemia por COVID-19. Dichos procesos y actividades buscaron, además de contribuir al control, prevención y tratamiento efectivo y seguro de la COVID-19, asegurar la implantación de medidas de bioseguridad, la dispensación y uso adecuado de los medicamentos y la información y educación basadas en la mejor evidencia disponible.

Abstract Objective: To identify and summarize the processes implemented and the activities performed by community and hospital-based pharmacists during the COVID-19 pandemic. Method: A scoping review was carried out of the PubMed/Medline database with the aim of identifying articles published until 30 June 2021. The PRISMA recommendations for this type of review were followed. The articles included were reviewed and classified according to their main characteristics and outcomes, according to population, concept and context. The processes and activities identified were grouped into three categories: those performed in community and hospital pharmacies, those performed essentially in community pharmacies, and those performed essentially in hospital pharmacies. Results: A total of 629 articles were identified, of which 454 were excluded because they were unrelated to the object of the review and 81 due to meeting the exclusion criteria. So, 94 articles were included in the analysis. Most studies were conducted in Europe and the United States. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the processes implemented and the activities carried out in both community and hospital-based pharmacies included pharmaceutical care, efficient and timely management of services, information and education, psychological support, pharmacovigilance and telepharmacy. Processes implemented and activities carried out essentially in community pharmacies were those related to the detection and referral of COVID-19 patients, testing and immunization, home care recommendations, and drug indications. Finally, processes and activities essentially occurring in hospital pharmacies included those related to participation in drug treatment research, drug evaluation and guidelines development, and to managing off-label drugs. Conclusions: During the COVID-19 crisis, pharmacists have led and implemented processes aimed at mitigating the impact of the pandemic on the population´s health. Pharmaceutical care, efficient and timely management of services, information and education, psychological support, pharmacovigilance and telepharmacy, both in community and hospital pharmacies, are the main processes implemented by pharmacists during the COVID-19 pandemic. These processes and activities, in addition to contributing to the control, prevention and effective and safe treatment of COVID-19; have ensured the implementation of biosecurity measures, proper dispensing of medication, the drug rational use, and the provision of evidence-based information and education.

Abstract Introduction: it is needing to design, implement and evaluate the acceptance, relevance, and usability of an online course aimed at promoting the detection and referral of suspected cases of COVID-19 from pharmacies-drugstores. Method: the design of the course was based on a proposed route for the care of users suspected of COVID-19 attending pharmacies, complemented by information obtained through a search in PubMed/Medline and on Websites of leading organizations in the field. The information was structured in an online course, a formulary was developed and applied to assess the coverage, acceptability, and relevance of the course. Results: an online course (How do we act against COVID-19 from the drugstores?) was designed and organized in 7 units and with key concepts to identify and refer suspected cases of COVID-19 from pharmacies-drugstores, available in https://udearroba.udea.edu.co/externos/my/. From April/2020 to April/2021, 863 persons were registered, 382 (44.3%) finished and were sent the formulary for evaluation the course, which was returned by 240 (62.8%). In this group, the satisfaction with the course and education materials was 95.8% and 97.1%, respectively. Also, 97.9% people assert that the course contribute to identify and to refer suspected cases of COVID-19; and 93.3% that, the navigation through the course provides easy access of the contents. Conclusions: a virtual, open, and usable course is designed, implemented, and evaluated, and although the participants state that the course promoting the detection and referral of suspected cases of COVID-19, from pharmacies-drugstores, it is needing to conduct a study to assess this question.

Resumen Introducción: es necesario diseñar, implementar y evaluar la aceptación, pertinencia y usabilidad de un curso virtual orientado a favorecer la identificación y referenciación de casos sospechosos de COVID-19 desde farmacias-droguerías en Colombia. Método: el diseño del curso se fundamentó en una ruta propuesta para la atención de usuarios sospechosos de COVID-19 que acuden a farmacias, complementada con información obtenida de una búsqueda en PubMed/Medline y en sitios Web de organizaciones referentes en el tema. La información se estructuró en un curso virtual, se elaboró y aplicó un instrumento para evaluar la cobertura, aceptabilidad y pertinencia del curso. Resultados: se diseñó el curso virtual ¿Cómo actuamos frente al COVID-19 desde las droguerías? organizado en 7 unidades con conceptos claves para identificar y referenciar casos sospechosos de COVID-19, desde farmacias-droguerías, disponible en https://udearroba.udea.edu.co/externos/my/. Entre abril/2020 y abril/2021 se registraron 863 personas, 382 (44,3%) finalizaron el curso y se les envió el instrumento de evaluación, y fue regresado por 240 (62,8%). En este grupo, la satisfacción con el curso y material didáctico fue del 95,8% y 97,1%, respectivamente. Además, el 97,9% manifestó que el curso contribuye a identificar y referenciar casos sospechosos de COVID-19; y el 93,3% que, el acceso y navegación por el curso, resultó sencillo. Conclusiones: se diseña, implementa y evalúa un curso virtual, abierto y usable, orientado a favorecer la identificación y referenciación de casos sospechosos de COVID-19, desde las farmacias-droguerías y, aunque los participantes declaran que contribuye con dicha finalidad, se requiere de un estudio diseñado para valorar esta aportación.

Resumen Objetivo: Describir los programas y las intervenciones educativas ofrecidas al personal farmacéutico, para mejorar la prestación de los servicios asistenciales farmacéuticos y los métodos utilizados para evaluar la efectividad de estos programas. Métodos: Se realizó una revisión estructurada, se utilizó la base de datos PubMed/Medline entre 2007 y 2019, sobre el desarrollo, la descripción, la evaluación del impacto, la efectividad o la comparación de una intervención educativa, un entrenamiento específico o un programa educativo dirigido al personal farmacéutico de farmacias comunitarias (ambulatorias) y/o hospitalarias. Resultados: En total, 1290 referencias bibliográficas fueron identificadas: se incluyeron 26 referencias adicionales y se seleccionaron 90 artículos para su revisión y análisis. Se encontró que el 70 % (63) de los estudios fueron realizados en países desarrollados, principalmente en Estados Unidos, Australia, Canadá e Inglaterra. El 67 % (60) de los estudios se realizaron a nivel ambulatorio, el 10 % (9) a nivel hospitalario y el 23 % (21), en ambos contextos. Las intervenciones fueron clasificadas en tres categorías: Entrenamientos Específicos (41 %), programas de Educación Continua (43 %) y de Desarrollo Profesional Continuo, (16 %). De las metodologías o métodos de provisión de la intervención, la más común fue la presencial en el 72 % (65) de los estudios, seguido de metodologías apoyadas con herramientas virtuales en el de las intervenciones educativas varió entre menos de 1 hora y 120 horas. Conclusión: Se describen los programas y las intervenciones educativas ofrecidas al personal farmacéutico, principalmente para mejorar sus competencias laborales y la prestación de los servicios asistenciales farmacéuticos, además de los métodos utilizados para evaluar la efectividad de las intervenciones educativas.

Abstract Objective: To describe the educational programs and interventions offered to pharmacy staff, to improve the delivery of pharmaceutical healthcare services and the methods used to evaluate the programs’ effectiveness. Methods: A structured review was performed using the PubMed/Medline database from 2007 to 2019. Results: In total, 1290 bibliographic references were identified; besides, 26 references identified by other sources were included and 90 articles for review and analysis were selected. It was found that 70% (63) of the studies were made in developed countries, mainly in the United States, Australia, Canada, and England. 67% (60) of the studies were carried out at the outpatient level, 10% (9) at the hospital level, and 23% (21) in both contexts. The interventions were classified into three categories: Specific settings (41%), Continuing Education (43%), and Continuing Professional Development (16%) programs. The most common methodology or delivery methods for the intervention were face-to-face in 72% (65) of the studies, followed by methodologies supported by virtual tools in 28% (25) and 11% (10) of the studies combined face-to-face and virtual methods. The duration of the educational interventions ranged from less than 1 hour to 120 hours. Conclusion: The educational programs and interventions offered to the pharmacy staff are described, mainly to improve their labor competencies. Additionally the provision of pharmaceutical healthcare services and the methods used to evaluate the effectiveness of the educational intervention.

ABSTRACT OBJETIVE To evaluate the skills and practices of pharmacy staff during the dispensing of tramadol (drug with fiscalized substance) in drugstores and pharmacies in Medellin, Colombia. METHODS A cross-sectional study was performed. The simulated patient technique was used. The main outcomes included the information provided on the dispensed drug (tramadol), the use of tools to provide information, and the information provided on drug precautions and use recommendations. RESULTS We visited 305 drugstores and pharmacies. The average dispensing time was 2.3 min (SD 1.1 min). In nine drugstores and pharmacies (3.0%), tramadol was not dispensed because it was not in stock. In 17 drugstores and pharmacies (5.7%), the simulated patients were actively informed by the dispensing pharmacy staff; of these, 16 provided oral information and one provided oral and written information. Eight patients (2.7%) received information regarding tramadol use. However, 99% of patients were not informed about tramadol side effects such as dependence, sedation, or hypnosis, and none of the simulated female patients were informed on the precautions related to tramadol use during pregnancy or lactation. CONCLUSIONS Communication skills and appropriate practices of pharmacy staff are critical to patient self-care. However, this study shows their difficulty in counseling about precautions and use recommendations of drugs with fiscalized substances. These outcomes could inform future studies focusing on the rational use of these drugs in drugstores and pharmacies. It is necessary to improve the pharmacy staff competencies through continuing education programs, to facilitate access to information and training.

ABSTRACT OBJETIVE To evaluate the skills and practices of pharmacy staff during the dispensing of tramadol (drug with fiscalized substance) in drugstores and pharmacies in Medellin, Colombia. METHODS A cross-sectional study was performed. The simulated patient technique was used. The main outcomes included the information provided on the dispensed drug (tramadol), the use of tools to provide information, and the information provided on drug precautions and use recommendations. RESULTS We visited 305 drugstores and pharmacies. The average dispensing time was 2.3 min (SD 1.1 min). In nine drugstores and pharmacies (3.0%), tramadol was not dispensed because it was not in stock. In 17 drugstores and pharmacies (5.7%), the simulated patients were actively informed by the dispensing pharmacy staff; of these, 16 provided oral information and one provided oral and written information. Eight patients (2.7%) received information regarding tramadol use. However, 99% of patients were not informed about tramadol side effects such as dependence, sedation, or hypnosis, and none of the simulated female patients were informed on the precautions related to tramadol use during pregnancy or lactation. CONCLUSIONS Communication skills and appropriate practices of pharmacy staff are critical to patient self-care. However, this study shows their difficulty in counseling about precautions and use recommendations of drugs with fiscalized substances. These outcomes could inform future studies focusing on the rational use of these drugs in drugstores and pharmacies. It is necessary to improve the pharmacy staff competencies through continuing education programs, to facilitate access to information and training.

Colombia is a decentralized republic with a population of 50 million, constituted by 32 departments (territorial units) and 1,204 municipalities. The health system provides universal coverage and equal access to health care services to 95% of the population. Primary health care is seen as a practical approach that guarantees the health and well-being of whole-of-society. The National Pharmaceutical Policy (NPP, 2012) goal is "to develop strategies that enable the Colombian population equitable access to effective medicines, through quality pharmaceutical services (PS)". There are 4,351 providers certified to deliver PS: 3,699 (85%) ambulatory and 652 (15%) hospital care. The goals for PS are: a) promoting healthy lifestyles; b) preventing risk factors arising from medication errors; c) promoting rational use of medicines; and d) implementing Pharmaceutical Care. There are a number of ways that ambulatory patients access medications: through intermediary private companies, public and private hospitals pharmacies, and retail establishments (drugstores and pharmacies). Intermediary private companies are similar to Pharmaceutical Benefits Management in the U.S. health system, and act as intermediaries between health insurers, pharmaceutical laboratories, and patients. Pharmacists are being employed by these companies and in health insurance companies managing, auditing and delivering rational use of medicines programs. In 2014 there were approximately 20,000 pharmacies and drugstores, (private establishments) where a significant number of prescription-only medicines are sold without medical prescription. Colombian laws allow personal without pharmacy education to be a "director" in these establishments, so the training and education of persons working in drugstores and pharmacies is an important challenge. There about 8,000 registered pharmaceutical chemists with 25% to 30% working in patient care. Since the 90's, there are more favorable conditions for pharmacist's participation and contribution to health system and patient's health outcome. These environmental facilitators include: a) laws and regulations regarding pharmaceutical services (2005-2007), b) establishment of a NPP (2012), and c) opportunities associated with the consolidation of private health management companies providing health services with an interest in pharmaceutical services (since 1995). Finally, telepharmacy, comprehensive care routes for pharmaceutical services, and further strengthen of postgraduate training in pharmacy practice are future strategies to improve the pharmacy profession in Colombia. They provide an opportunity to influence the recognition and value of the pharmacist as the health care professional.

Resumen Introducción: La planta Cannabis sativa (marihuana) contiene un número aproximado de 60 cannabinoides, de los cuales, el delta-9-tetrahidrocannabinol es el componente más estudiado para ser utilizado con fines medicinales. El conocimiento adecuado por parte de los ciudadanos de esta estrategia terapéutica es un proceso clave para garantizar la aceptación y la buena adherencia al tratamiento. Objetivo: Establecer la percepción que tienen los estudiantes de pregrado de Química Farmacéutica, Tecnología en Regencia de Farmacia y Medicina de la Universidad de Antioquia, en cuanto al uso de los productos de extractos de cannabis como tratamiento medicinal. Método: Estudio observacional de corte transversal, a partir de encuestas a estudiantes a través de un formulario en línea. Resultados: Se aplicaron 374 encuestas, 232 (62%) estudiantes de pregrado de Química Farmacéutica y Tecnología en Regencia de Farmacia y 142 (38%) de Medicina. De los estudiantes, 222 (59,4%) eran del sexo femenino, con una edad promedio de 22,5 años, y 348 (94%) viven en estrato socioeconómico bajo y medio. El 60,2% de los estudiantes dicen tener un conocimiento inadecuado sobre la utilización de la marihuana medicinal, la utilización de cannabinoides medicinales, la reglamentación y la seguridad. Relacionado con la opinión sobre la utilización medicinal, 356 (95,2%) de los encuestados estuvieron de acuerdo. Conclusiones: La mayoría de los estudiantes manifestaron un conocimiento inadecuado sobre la utilización de los cannabinoides terapéuticos. Además, gran parte de los estudiantes están de acuerdo con la utilización de la marihuana medicinal.

Abstract Introduction: Cannabis sativa (marijuana) contains approximately 60 cannabinoids, of which, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol is the most studied component to be used for medicinal purposes. Adequate knowledge by citizens of this therapeutic strategy is a key process to guarantee the acceptance and the good adherence to the treatment. Objective: To establish the perception of undergraduate students of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Technology in Regency of pharmacy and medicine of the University of Antioquia, as regards to the use of cannabis extracts products as medicinal treatment. Method: Observational cross-sectional study, based on surveys to students through an online form. Results: 374 surveys were obtained, 232 (62%) from students of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology in Regency of Pharmacy, and 142 (38%) from Medicine. 222 (59.4%) of the students that were female, with a mean age of 22.5 years, and 348 (94%) live in low and middle socioeconomic strata. 60.2% of students claim to have inadequate knowledge regarding the use of medical marijuana, the use of medicinal cannabinoids, regulation and safety. Related to the opinion of the medicinal use, 356 (95.2%) respondents agreed. Conclusions: Most of the students expressed inadequate knowledge about the use of therapeutic cannabinoids. In addition, the vast majority of students agree with the use of medical marijuana.

Fluoroquinolone type antimicrobials can cause hypo or hyperglycemia in certain patients. We performed a structured review about this side effect, searching articles published in English or Spanish with full text access in PubMed/Medline. The following MESH terms were used: Hypoglycemia, Hyperglycemia, Quinolones, Ciprofloxacin, Levofloxacin, Moxifloxacin. Additionally, we evaluated the clinical relevance of potential drug interactions, based on the probability of occurrence and the severity of the interaction effect. We obtained 42 publications about the issue; 22 references were selected, where the severity of the interaction in patients with risk factors was evaluated. Patients receiving antidiabetic medications and with risk factors such as advanced age and renal failure may be more likely to have a severe hypoglycemia. In these patients, this drug interaction should be considered clinically relevant since its risk is high or very high.

Resumen Objetivo: valorar el conocimiento sobre los factores de riesgo cardiovascular en pacientes ambulatorios atendidos en un programa de prevención cardiovascular de un hospital de primer nivel de atención, y explorar su relación con el riesgo cardiovascular y las variables sociodemográficas. Métodos: se realizó un estudio observacional descriptivo de corte transversal, en el que se evalúo el conocimiento del riesgo cardiovascular en pacientes con factores de riesgo o enfermedad cardiovascular, con diagnóstico de hipertensión arterial, dislipidemia o diabetes mellitus, a través de un cuestionario validado de diez preguntas. Se calculó el riesgo cardiovascular a través del método de Framingham calibrado para Colombia. Se calculó Chi cuadrado para comparar proporciones y t de Student para medias. Resultados: se incluyeron 138 pacientes, con edad promedio de 62,8 años (DE 12,6), 23,9% de género masculino, 97,8% con historia personal de hipertensión, 29,7% de dislipidemia, 15,9% de diabetes y 0,7% de enfermedad cardiovascular. El conocimiento fue valorado como adecuado en 60 (43,5%) de los pacientes. El riesgo cardiovascular fue valorado como bajo, alto y moderado en 47,8%, 32,6% y 19,6% de los pacientes, respectivamente. Se encontró asociación estadísticamente significativa entre el conocimiento con el nivel educativo medio y alto (p=0,013) y la realización de actividad física regular (p=0,045). Conclusiones: solo un 43% de los pacientes tiene un conocimiento adecuado sobre riesgo cardiovascular. Dicho conocimiento se relaciona con mayor nivel educativo y práctica de actividad física regular. La asociación entre conocimiento y riesgo cardiovascular bajo no fue estadísticamente significativa.

Abstract Objective: To evaluate knowledge about cardiovascular risk factors in outpatients treated in a cardiovascular prevention program from a Primary Care hospital, and to examine its relationship with the cardiovascular risk and sociodemographic variables. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted to evaluate the knowledge that cardiovascular risk patients have about risk factors or cardiovascular disease, with a diagnosis of hypertension, dyslipidaemia, or diabetes mellitus, through a validated questionnaire of 10 questions. Cardiovascular risk using the Framingham method calibrated for Colombia was calculated. The chi squared test was used to compare ratios and the Student t test for means. Results: The study included 138 patients with mean age of 62.8 (SD 12.6), 23.9% male, 97.8% with personal history of hypertension, 29.7% with dyslipidaemia, 15.9% with diabetes and 0.7% with cardiovascular disease. Knowledge was assessed as appropriate in 60 (43.5%) patients. The cardiovascular risk was assessed as low, moderate, and high in 47.8%, 19.6% and 32.6% of patients, respectively. A statistically significant association was found between knowledge and medium and high educational level (p=.013) and the practice of physical activity on a regular basis (p=.045). Conclusions: Only 43% of patients have adequate knowledge of risk factors and cardiovascular disease. Adequate knowledge is associated with a higher level of education and regular physical activity. The association between knowledge and low cardiovascular risk was not statistically significant.

Resumen Introducción: Los fallos prevenibles en la cadena del medicamento se relacionan con los Problemas Relacionados con la Utilización de Medicamentos, y están asociados a errores de medicación (prescripción, dispensación, administración o uso), incluyendo los fallos en el Sistema de Suministro de Medicamentos (disponibilidad y calidad). Objetivo: Identificar información básica de los Establecimientos Farmacéuticos (EF), caracterizar algunos procesos relacionados con la utilización de medicamentos fiscalizados (MF), incluyendo cumplimiento de la normatividad, y determinar el nivel de percepción del riesgo y las necesidades de educación continua del personal farmacéutico (PF). Metodología: Se realizó un estudio de corte transversal. Se utilizó un cuestionario sobre los procesos enfocados en la utilización de MF, durante mayo a septiembre de 2016. Resultados: Se visitaron 700 establecimientos y se encuestaron a igual cantidad de PF. El 88% (617) de los establecimientos eran de estratos socioeconómicos bajo y medio. Los MF más dispensados fueron: amitriptilina 91,4% (640), tramadol 90% (630) y trazodona 60% (419). El 71,6% (501) de los encuestados consideró que el expendedor de drogas es el personal más idóneo para dispensar MF. El 25% (177) de los encuestados percibieron como muy deficiente a regular el proceso de información y educación que ellos brindan, y el 32% (223) con igual percepción en la responsabilidad que tienen con el uso y resultados en salud de los pacientes. Conclusiones: Se identifica la información general de los establecimientos, al igual que de los procesos relacionados con la utilización de MF. La percepción de los encuestados sobre el personal idóneo para la dispensación correcta de MF podría ser inadecuado. Un alto porcentaje del PF percibe falencias de educación enfocada en la utilización correcta de los MF.

Abstract Introduction: Preventable failures in the drug chain are related to Drugs Problems Related Use and are associated with medication errors (prescription, dispensing, administration or use by the patient or caregiver), including failures In the Medication Supply System (availability and quality). Objective: Recognize basic information of the Pharmaceutical Establishments (PE), to characterize some processes related to the use of controlled drugs (CD), including compliance with the regulations, and determine the level of risk perception and the continuing education needs of the staff pharmacy. Methodology: A cross-sectional, epidemiological study was performed. A questionnaire was used on the processes focused on the use of CD, between May to September of 2016. Results: 700 PE were visited and an equal number of staff pharmacy were interviewed. Eighty-eight percent (617) of PE are socioeconomic low and medium status, and have an average of 15.3 years of operation (SD 13.6 years). The most favored CD were: mitriptyline 91.4% (640), tramadol 90% (630) and trazodone 60% (419). 76.6% (536) of the respondents considered that the Pharmacy Technician is the most suitable personnel to dispense CD. 25% (177) of the respondents perceived as very poor to regulate the process of information and education that they provide, and 32% (223) with equal perception in the responsibility that they have with the use and results in patients’ health. Conclusions: It identifies the general information of PE, as well as of processes related to the use of CD. The perception of respondents about the SP that is suitable for the correct dispensing of CD may be inadequate. A high percentage of the SP perceives educational failures focused on the correct use of CD.

Resumen Introducción: Las interacciones medicamentosas de anti-infecciosos pueden desencadenar enfermedad renal; sin embargo, la información de este efecto es limitada, por tanto, la identificación, prevención y manejo de las interacciones medicamentosas clínicamente relevantes se considera un aspecto clave en la consecución de los objetivos terapéuticos en pacientes en tratamiento con anti-infecciosos. Objetivo: Identificar y valorar la relevancia clínica de interacciones medicamentosas de anti-infecciosos que causan enfermedad renal. Metodología: Revisión sistemática cualitativa de interacciones medicamentosas de anti-infecciosos asociadas a enfermedad renal. La relevancia clínica de las interacciones medicamentosas se valoró acorde con la probabilidad de ocurrencia y la gravedad del efecto. La búsqueda se realizó en la base de datos PubMed/Medline, de artículos publicados en inglés o español, entre agosto de 2006 y agosto de 2016, utilizando los siguientes términos Mesh y operadores boléanos: “Renal Insufficiency” OR “Anti-Infective Agents” OR “Antifungal Agents” OR “Anti-Bacterial Agents” AND “Drug Interactions” OR “Herb-Drug Interactions” OR “Food-Drug Interactions”. Resultados: Se identificaron 44 publicaciones y se incluyeron 9; en ellas, se identificaron 12 interacciones medicamentosas asociadas a enfermedad renal. Las combinaciones asociadas a enfermedad renal fueron: inhibidores de proteasa/nifedipino, cobicistat/fenofibrato/pravastatina, tenofovir/metformina, macrólidos/ estatinas, macrólidos/bloqueadores de los canales de calcio, quinolonas/warfarina, valaciclovir/loxoprofen y ácido fusídico/pravastatina. Conclusiones: Los inhibidores de proteasa, macrólidos y quinolonas, al igual que el tenofovir, cobicistat, valaciclovir y ácido fusídico pueden generar enfermedad renal cuando se utilizan simultáneamente con otros medicamentos, en especial con estatinas, bloqueadores de canales de calcio, warfarina, metformina o loxoprofen. MÉD.UIS. 2017;30(3):101-9.

Abstract Introduction: Drug interactions of anti-infectives can trigger renal disease; however, information on this effect is limited. Therefore, the identification, prevention and management of clinically relevant drug interactions are a key aspect in the achievement of therapeutic objectives in patients receiving anti-infectives. Objective: To identify and assess the clinical relevance of anti-infective drug interactions that causes kidney disease. Methodology: Systematic qualitative review of drug interactions of anti-infectives associated with renal disease. The clinical relevance of drug interactions was assessed according to the probability of occurrence and severity of the effect. The search was done in the PubMed/Medline database of articles published in english or spanish, between august 2006 and august 2016, using the following Mesh terms and Boolean Operators: “Renal Insufficiency” OR “ Anti-Bacterial Agents “OR” Drug Interactions “OR” HerbDrug Interactions “OR” Food-Drug Interactions “. Results: We identified 44 publications and nine were included. In these nine articles, 12 drug interactions associated with renal disease were identified. Combinations associated with renal disease were protease inhibitors/ nifedipine, cobicistat/fenofibrate/pravastatin, tenofovir/metformin, macrolides/statins, statins/calcium channel blockers, quinolones/ warfarin, valaciclovir/loxoprofen and fusidic acid/Pravastatin. Conclusions: Protease inhibitors, macrolides and quinolones, as well as tenofovir, cobicistat, valaciclovir and fusidic acid can generate renal disease when used simultaneously with other drugs, especially with statins, calcium channel blockers, warfarin, metformin or loxoprofen. MÉD.UIS. 2017;30(3):101-9

Resumen Objetivo: Evaluar el uso concomitante de la warfarina y el acetaminofén en una población ambulatoria de pacientes anticoagulados, como posible factor de riesgo en el aumento de la Relación Normalizada Internacional (INR). Métodos: Estudio de cohortes retrospectivo. Se analizó la información de 1.458 pacientes anticoagulados con la warfarina. El factor de riesgo fue la utilización conjunta de warfarina- acetaminofén; el tiempo de seguimiento fue de 1 mes y como evento final se consideró un incremento del INR igual o mayor a 0,5 unidades. La asociación del factor de riesgo con el evento final se estableció con el riesgo relativo (RR) y el riesgo atribuible poblacional (RAP). Resultados: 63 pacientes cumplieron criterios de inclusión, 21 pacientes expuestos y 42 pacientes no expuestos. En los individuos expuestos se observó un aumento estadísticamente significativo en el INR al mes siguiente de haber iniciado el tratamiento con el acetaminofén comparado con el momento de ingreso al estudio (mes 1: mediana 3,06 vs. mes 0: mediana 2,63), (valor p = 0,003). En contraste, en los sujetos no expuestos no se observaron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los valores del INR (mes 0: mediana 2,63 vs. mes 1: mediana 2,75), (valor p = 0,115). El uso de la warfarina y el acetaminofén representó un RR de 2,5 veces mayor de incrementar el INR mayor o igual de 0,5 unidades. Conclusión: El uso concomitante de la warfarina y el acetaminofén está asociado a un aumento del INR igual o mayor de 0,5 unidades, lo cual podría generar un mayor efecto anticoagulante y, por tanto, un mayor riesgo potencial de sangrado.

Abstract Motivation: To assess concomitant use of warfarin and acetaminophen in an outpatient population of patients receiving blood-thinning drugs as a possible risk factor for the increase of International Normalised Ratio (INR). Methods: Retrospective cohort study. The information pertaining 1,458 patients receiving blood-thinning drugs with warfarin was analysed. The risk factor was the joint intake of warfarin and acetaminophen; follow-up time was 1 month and the final event considered was a INR increase of or higher than 0.5 units. The association of the risk factor with the final event was establish with the Relative Risk (RR) and the Population Attributable Risk (PAR). Results: 63 patients met the inclusion criteria, of whom 21 were exposed patients and 42 were unexposed patients. In the exposed patients a statistically significant increase of INR on the month following the onset of treatment with acetaminophen was observed, compared to the baseline values (month 1: median 3.06 vs. month 0: median 2.63), (p = 0.003). In contrast, no statistically significant differences of INR values were observed in unexposed individuals (month 0: median 2.63 vs. month 1: median 2.75) (p = 0.115). The combination of warfarin and acetaminophen represented a RR 2.5 times higher to increase INR greater than or equal to 0.5 units. Conclusion: Concomitant use of warfarin and acetaminophen is associated to an increase of INR equal to or greater than 0.5 units, which could generate a higher blood-thinning effect and, thus, cause a potentially higher risk of bleeding.

Objetivo: realizar una revisión estructurada de la interacción warfarina y acetaminofén, buscando establecer su relevancia clínica y profundizar en el mecanismo de dicha interacción. Método: revisión estructurada en PubMed/Medline, de artículos en inglés y español, buscando los términos warfarin AND (acetaminophen OR paracetamol) en el título o resumen. La búsqueda se complementó con las referencias de artículos valorados como importantes. Los trabajos se agruparon en: relacionados con el aumento de sangrado por la interacción warfarina-acetaminofén, o relacionados con el mecanismo de la interacción. Resultados: se identificaron 45 artículos, de los cuales se incluyeron 15 en la revisión: 11 relacionados con el aumento del riesgo de sangrado por la interacción y cuatro con el mecanismo de la interacción. La gravedad del efecto (aumento de la probabilidad de sangrado) se consideró moderada; mientras que la probabilidad de aparición fue valorada como definida. Además, se identificó una relación entre la dosis de acetaminofén y el riesgo de sangrado. Por su parte, el N-acetil-para-benzoquinona-imina (metabolito del acetaminofén) inhibe enzimas del ciclo de la vitamina K y tiene un efecto sinérgico con el efecto anticoagulante de la warfarina. Conclusiones: la relevancia clínica de la interacción warfarina - acetaminofén es de riesgo alto, debido a que la gravedad del efecto (aumento del riesgo de sangrado) es moderada y su probabilidad de presentación es definida. Por tanto, estos dos medicamentos pueden ser utilizados conjuntamente, pero se debe realizar una estricta monitorización. El metabolito N-acetil-para-benzoquinona-imina es el responsable del aumento del efecto anticoagulante de la warfarina. (Acta Med Colomb 2013; 38: 22-27)

Objective: to make a structured review of the interaction between warfarin and acetaminophen, seeking to establish its clinical relevance and deepen in the mechanism of this interaction. Method: structured review of PubMed/Medline of articles in English and Spanish, looking warfarin and acetaminophen or paracetamol in the title or abstract. The search was complemented with references of articles rated as important. The papers were grouped in: related to increased bleeding due to warfarin-acetaminophen interaction, or related to the mechanism of the interaction. Results: we identified 45 articles, of which 15 were included in the review: 11 related to increased risk of bleeding due to the interaction and 4 with the mechanism of the interaction. The severity of the effect (increased likelihood of bleeding) was considered moderate, whereas the probability of appearance was rated as definite. In addition, we identified a relationship between the dose of acetaminophen and the risk of bleeding. In turn, the N-acetyl-para-benzoquinone-imine (metabolite of acetaminophen) inhibits enzymes of the vitamin K cycle and has a synergistic effect with the anticoagulant effect of warfarin. Conclusions: the clinical relevance of the interaction warfarin-acetaminophen is of high risk due to the fact that the severity of the effect (increased risk of bleeding) is moderate and the probability of its presentation is definite. Therefore, these two drugs can be used together, but a strict monitoring should be conducted. The metabolite N-acetyl-para-benzoquinone-imine is responsible for the increase in the anticoagulant effect of warfarin. (Acta Med Colomb 2013; 38: 22-27)

Objetivo: realizar una revisión estructurada de la interacción clopidogrel y omeprazol, establecer su relevancia clínica y generar recomendaciones prácticas respecto al tema. Método: revisión estructurada en PubMed/MedLine de trabajos publicados en los últimos diez años, utilizando como estrategia clopidogrel AND omeprazole. La información se agrupó y complementó acorde con el método utilizado para la cuantificación del efecto y con la determinación de un posible efecto de clase. Resultados: la búsqueda generó 35 artículos, de ellos se incluyeron 18 (cinco valoraron la interacción in-vitro, seis la interacción in-vivo y diez la interacción como un efecto de clase). Siete estudios reportaron pérdida del efecto antiagregante, mientras que tres no encontraron una alteración relevante del mismo. Conclusiones: la evidencia de la relevancia clínica de la interacción clopidogrel y omeprazol no es concluyente. Se recomienda seguir las indicaciones de las agencias regulatorias y, en algunos casos, sustituir omeprazol por pantoprazol.

Objective: to perform a structured review of the clopidogrel and omeprazole interaction, establish its clinical relevance and generate practical recommendations on the subject. Method: a structured review on PubMedLine of studies published in the last ten years, using clopidogrel AND omeprazole as strategy. The information was grouped and complemented according to the method used to quantify the effect and with the determination of a possible class effect. Results: the search generated 35 articles, of which 18 were included (five assessed the in-vitro interaction, six the in-vivo interaction and ten analyzed the interaction as a class effect). Seven studies reported loss of the platelet anti-aggregation effect, while three found no significant alteration of the effect. Conclusions: the evidence of the clinical relevance of clopidogrel and omeprazole interaction is nor conclusive. It is recommended to follow the regulatory agencies indications, and in some cases replace omeprazole for pantoprazole.