This study focused on the effects of different peak (austenitizing) temperatures (Tp) over the martensite start temperature (Ms) and its influence on the final residual stresses after welding simulation. For this purpose, the expansion coefficients obtained through physical (dilatometric) simulations of a high-strength low-alloy steel were considered for three peak temperatures: 1300 °C, 1150 °C, and 920 °C and a cooling rate of 25 °C/s. Aiming at clarifying the physical phenomenon behind GTAW welding, one carried out nonlinear transient thermomechanical finite-element (FE) analyses to reconstitute the welding process and simulate the subsequent formation of residual stresses in the HAZ. Once the heat source simulation was calibrated, four material models were created, one for each Tp, and a fourth model considering a constant expansion coefficient, without considering the martensite transformation for comparison. A Three-bar model was evaluated to isolate the effects of Tp (Ms) in the residual stresses. A composite plate model was also considered, in which the sheet HAZ was subdivided according to the reached peak temperature, and the respective material models were applied. The results show the importance of martensite transformation on the welding-induced residual stress and a clear trend of decreasing tensions with lowering the Tp, especially over HAZ.

This study is focused on the performance evaluation of flash-butt-welded rail joints concerning their mechanical strength and fatigue life. Residual stresses created in the heat-affected zone were measured and the effects of the welding process and notch sensitivity on the fatigue behavior in the weld region were experimentally assessed. Aiming at clarifying the physical phenomenon behind the flash-butt welding, nonlinear transient thermomechanical finite-element analyses were performed to reconstitute the welding process and to simulate the subsequent formation of residual stresses. A new hypothesis for explaining higher temperatures in the rail web than in the rail foot and head was suggested and numerically verified. Experimental fatigue results showed high notch sensitivity and highlighted the effects of microstructure variations on the fatigue life. In general, a good agreement was achieved between numerical and experimental measurements of residual stresses, which was essential for understanding the fatigue phenomenon and the formation of residual stresses in flash-butt-welded rail joints. A relevant outcome is the simulation of the hot burrs from the welding process as prescribed heat inputs on a convenient part of the rail surface. This simulation strategy has shown adequate to explain the non-uniform temperature changes and the corresponding originated residual stresses. flashbuttwelded flash butt welded life heataffected affected assessed flashbutt finiteelement finite element verified general surface nonuniform non uniform

High-carbon steels have been used to high-strength steel wire and strands for prestressing concrete. The necessity of high-strength levels at increasingly larger diameters of wire rods is a technological challenge. Two steels with and without Nb were obtained in a steel mill, submitted to detailed microstructural (previous austenitic grain size, pearlite interlamellar spacing and colony size) and mechanical characterization through tensile tests and hardness. Hot torsion and dilatometry tests were performed to simulate steels processing and to verify the influence of Nb on phase transformation. Adding Nb to steel resulted in a refinement in austenitic grain size and pearlite colonies but had no effect on pearlitic interlamellar spacing. There was a decrease at the start transformation temperature austenite/pearlite and therefore an increase in the hardenability of the Nb-added steel. Finally, Nb addition proved to be a technical and economical way to increase tensile strength and to reduce the variability of the mechanical properties.

Resumo: Trilhos longos soldados por centelhamento elétrico (Flash Butt Welding - FBW) apresentam características desejáveis do ponto de vista do comportamento dinâmico da via, no entanto, as soldas são regiões de descontinuidade estrutural e mecânica onde se originam tensões residuais, e que estão associadas a falhas prematuras por fadiga. Ensaios de dilatometria foram empregados para simular os efeitos do tamanho de grão austenítico sobre a evolução microestrutural pós-soldagem. Simulações numéricas termomecânicas, não-lineares, no domínio do tempo, pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), foram empregadas para avaliar os efeitos de modificações de parâmetros do processo de soldagem sobre as tensões residuais. Os resultados apresentados permitem compreender os mecanismos das alterações morfológicas da perlita na Zona Termicamente Afetada (ZTA) em termos de transformações de fases e podem ser utilizados para sistematicamente orientar mudanças nos parâmetros do processo ou controlar a taxa de resfriamento de modo a obter melhores condições metalúrgicas/mecânicas. Ademais, os resultados dos modelos numéricos mostram como a adoção de ZTA estreita influencia nas taxas de resfriamento e no desenvolvimento de tensões residuais em regiões críticas do componente.

Abstract: Long rails, welded by the Flash-Butt Welding process present desirable characteristics concerning the dynamic behavior of the track, however flash-butt-welded joints are regions of structural and mechanical discontinuity where high residual stresses originate, and, consequently, premature-fatigue failures may take place. This paper employs dilatometric analysis to simulate the austenitic grain size effects on the postweld microstructural evolution. Finite Element Method (FEM) is used to carry out transient, physically non-linear thermo-mechanical analyses to evaluate the effects of the welding parameters on residual stresses. The results allow understanding the mechanisms associated with the morphological changes of the pearlite in the HAZ in terms of phase transformation and can be used to systematically guide changes in the process parameters or to control the cooling rate in order to obtain better metallurgical/mechanical conditions. In addition, from the results of the numerical models, it is demonstrated how the adoption of narrow HAZ influences cooling rates and the development of residual stresses in critical regions of the welded component.

Resumo Aços IF são amplamente empregados na indústria automobilística. No decorrer das aplicações de soldagem, eles passam pela transformação de fase austenita (γ) → ferrita (α) que ocorre por nucleação e crescimento de grão e, em condições isotérmicas, é descrita pela equação JMAK. Todavia, as transformações de fases pós-soldagem acontecem a partir de resfriamento contínuo. Assim, o presente trabalho caracterizou a cinética de transformação γ → α e propôs um modelo empírico para prever as temperaturas críticas durante o resfriamento contínuo em zonas termicamente afetadas de três tipos de aços IF. Amostras dos aços foram submetidas a ensaios dilatométricos com diferentes taxas de resfriamento contínuo. Determinaram-se as temperaturas críticas de transformação de fase (γ→α) e obteve-se uma equação empírica que correlacionou a temperatura crítica com a taxa de resfriamento e que viabilizou a previsibilidade da cinética de transformação de fases. Processo de soldagem TIG mecanizado foi aplicado nos aços IF com monitoramento de ciclos térmicos e, em regiões da ZTA com condições de austenitização e taxa de resfriamento similares às utilizadas nos ensaios dilatométricos, verificou-se que a equação empírica obtida é uma alternativa viável para prever as temperaturas críticas e a microestrutura durante o resfriamento contínuo na ZTA destes materiais.

Abstract IF steels are widely used in the automotive industry. In the course of the welding applications, they undergo the transformation of austenite (γ) → ferrite (α) phase that occurs by nucleation and grain growth and, under isothermal conditions, is described by the JMAK equation. However, post-weld phase transformations occur under continuous cooling conditions. Thus, the present work characterized the transformation kinetics γ → α and proposed an empirical model to predict critical temperatures during continuous cooling in heat affected zones of three types of IF steels. Samples of the steels were submitted to dilatometric tests with different rates of continuous cooling. The critical phase transformation temperatures (γ → α) were determined and an empirical equation was obtained which correlated the critical temperature with the cooling rate, which enabled the predictability of phase transformation kinetics. Mechanized TIG process was applied to IF steels with thermal cycling monitoring and, in regions of the HAZ with austenitizing conditions and cooling rates similar to those used in the dilatometric tests, it was verified that the obtained empirical equation is a viable alternative to predict the critical temperatures and the microstructure during the continuous cooling in the HAZ of these steels.

Resumo Trilhos longos, soldados pelo processo Flash Butt Welding (FBW), são a realidade das ferrovias brasileiras de média e alta carga por eixo. Embora apresentem características desejáveis do ponto de vista do comportamento dinâmico da via, as soldas são regiões de descontinuidade estrutural e mecânica onde se originam tensões residuais, e que estão associadas a falhas prematuras por fadiga. Simulações numéricas termomecânicas, fisicamente não-lineares, no domínio do tempo, pelo Método dos Elementos Finitos (MEF), foram empregadas para avaliar o desenvolvimento de tensões residuais originadas durante o processo de soldagem. Uma nova abordagem para a inclusão do aporte de calor envolvido no processo é proposta. Os resultados numéricos são comparados a medidas experimentais de tensões residuais superficiais e aspectos macrográficos das juntas, incluindo largura da Zona Termicamente Afetada (ZTA) e dados de taxas de resfriamento. Os resultados mostram boa correlação entre as análises numéricas e medidas experimentais de tensões residuais. Aspectos fundamentais relacionados ao desenvolvimento de tensões residuais são esclarecidos a partir da correlação entre análises numérica e experimental. Ademais, verifica-se que os modelos computacionais podem ser utilizados na previsão de pontos críticos para nucleação de trincas por fadiga e/ou avaliar efeitos de variáveis de processo sobre o campo de tensões residuais.

Abstract Long rails, welded by the Flash-Butt Welding (FBW) process, are the reality of the Brazilian railroads for medium and high axle loads. Although they present desirable characteristics concerning the dynamic behavior of the track, welded joints are regions of structural and mechanical discontinuity where high residual stresses originate, and, consequently, premature fatigue failures may take place. This paper employs the Finite Element Method (FEM) to carry out transient, physically non-linear thermo-mechanical analyses to evaluate residual stresses evolved in the welding process. A new approach is proposed to take into account the heat input involved in the process. The numerical results are compared to experimentally measured surface residual stresses, and to the macrographic joint aspects, including the HAZ width and cooling rate data. The results show a good correlation between the numerical and experimental measurements of residual stresses. Fundamental aspects related to the development of residual stresses are clarified, correlating numerical and experimental analyses. In addition, it is verified that the computational models can be used to predict critical crack nucleation points by fatigue, and/or to evaluate effects of process parameters on the residual stress field.

Resumo Características microestruturais e mecânicas foram avaliadas ao longo da seção transversal de juntas obtidas por soldagem (GMAW), de tubos sem costura de aço API 5L X65Q. Dois tipos de juntas foram obtidas a partir da confecção de chanfro V e ½ V. Dividindo-se as chapas soldadas em 8 camadas espaçadas de 3mm, no sentido transversal, corpos de prova foram confeccionados para ensaios de tração, microdureza Vickers e análise química. Foi realizada ainda caracterização metalográfica no metal base e nas juntas soldadas. Observou-se pequena alteração na composição química do metal de solda entre as camadas da junta V e junta ½ V. A maior taxa de resfriamento promoveu maior fração de ferrita acicular no chanfro ½ V. Alguns corpos de prova de tamanho reduzido não atenderam aos limites mínimos de escoamento e de resistência especificados na Norma API 5L, resultado atribuído à presença de descontinuidades em algumas regiões da solda. A maior microdureza Vickers da junta ½ V foi atribuída à maior presença de ferrita acicular. A adoção de chanfro estreito para aumento de produtividade na soldagem do aço em estudo não impactou negativamente as propriedades da junta, entretanto, aumentou a ocorrência de falta de fusão na face do bisel.

Abstract Microstructural and mechanical characteristics were evaluated along the cross section of joints obtained by (GMAW) of seamless API 5L X65Q steel pipes. Two types of joints were obtained from the bevel V and ½ V. By the division of the welded plates into 8 layers spaced 3 mm in the transverse direction, specimens were prepared for tensile tests, Vickers microhardness and chemical analysis. In addition, metallographic characterization was performed on the base metal samples and welded joints. It was observed a small change in the chemical composition of the weld metal between the 1st and 8th layer of the V joint and ½ V joint. The higher cooling rate of the ½ V bevel promoted higher acicular ferrite content. Some specimens of reduced size did not meet the minimum tensile properties limits specified in API 5L, a result attributed to the presence of discontinuities in some regions of the weld. The highest Vickers microhardness of the ½ V joint was attributed to the greater presence of the acicular ferrite. The adoption of narrow groove to improve the welding productivity did not negatively impact the properties of the joint, however, increased the occurrence of lack of fusion in the bevel face.

Resumo Trilhos com perfil TR-57 do tipo intermediário foram soldados por centelhamento em um estaleiro brasileiro e passaram por detalhada caracterização mecânica e metalográfica. Os dados quantitativos da caracterização metalográfica e dos ensaios mecânicos foram submetidos a análises de variância (ANOVA). Na metalografia confirmou-se a presença majoritária de perlita, porém há também ferrita proeutetóide na linha central da solda e globulização parcial da cementita em regiões da Zona Termicamente Afetada (ZTA), sobretudo na zona de transformação parcial. O tamanho das colônias perlíticas e o espaçamento interlamelar foram correlacionados à microdureza Vickers em toda a extensão da junta. Ensaios de tração revelaram que o metal base atendeu às especificações da Norma AREMA, no entanto, as juntas soldadas não atenderam e a fratura dos corpos de prova ocorreu na região de menor dureza da ZTA. Os resultados permitem compreender, em detalhes, as consequências do processo de soldagem sobre a estrutura do aço e as variações de propriedades em diversas regiões da junta, com destaque às alterações morfológicas da perlita. Relações com modos de falha anteriormente relatados na literatura científica também são apresentadas.

Abstract TR-57 intermediate steel rails were welded in a Brazilian flash butt welding plant and the joints were subjected to a detailed mechanical and structural characterization. Quantitative data were subjected to ANOVA analysis. The metallography has confirmed the majority presence of pearlite, but pro-eutectoid ferrite was also verified in the weld centerline. Globulized cementite appeared in some regions of the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), particularly in the partial transformation zone. The pearlite colony size and pearlite interlamellar spacing were related to Vickers microhardness over the full joint length. The base metal met the minimum specified tensile properties in the AREMA standard. However, the weld joints did not meet the minimum tensile strength and all samples fractured in the partial transformation zone, which has lower hardness. The results help to deep understand the structure-properties relationships over the full joint, highlighting the relations between the welding process and the resultant pearlite morphology. Considerations about the component failure modes previously related in scientific literature are also presented.

Threaded and coupled connections generally present a non-uniform stress distribution, which is related to the higher stiffness of the box when compared to the pin. The non-uniform stress distribution can contribute to fatigue cracks and other failure modes in high pressure oil wells. An API 5CT P110 steel obtained from a seamless pipe was mechanically characterized. FEA models were carried out to investigate and compare two API casing connections under make-up torque and tensile efforts. A parametric study was performed using numerical models to determine the influence of some geometric features on the behavior of the API Buttress threaded connection. The API Buttress connection supported higher tensile loads than the API Short Round, however both standard connections showed high stress concentration in the last engaged thread and a non-uniform stress distribution. The manufacturing of grooves at the first and the last engaged threads proved to be an efficient way to reduce the stress concentration of Buttress casing connection and could be an alternative to the development of new products.

Resumo Neste trabalho, investigaram-se efeitos do fenômeno de envelhecimento por deformação em juntas obtidas por soldagem a arco elétrico com proteção gasosa (GMAW), de tubos sem costura de aço API5L X65Q. Corpos de prova (CPs) obtidos a partir das juntas soldadas foram submetidos à uma deformação plástica a frio de 3% e posteriormente envelhecidas por 1h a 250°C, de forma a se induzir envelhecimento estático. Buscando avaliar o envelhecimento dinâmico, os CPs foram deformados até 3% e o carregamento foi mantido durante 1h a 250°C. Os CPs envelhecidos foram submetidos a ensaios de tração e amostras representativas foram analisadas ao microscópio óptico e microscópio eletrônico de varredura. Observou-se que o fenômeno modificou a fração volumétrica de constituintes secundários no metal de solda e na ZTA, com aumento na proporção de agregados ferrita-carbonetos. Com relação às propriedades mecânicas, constatou-se que o fenômeno reduziu a razão elástica das juntas soldadas devido a um aumento no limite de resistência, além de aumentar o alongamento total, não prejudicando, portanto, as propriedades mecânicas em tração das juntas soldadas. Ao se comparar o envelhecimento estático com o envelhecimento dinâmico, observou-se que o aumento na capacidade de deformação plástica das juntas soldadas foi maior após envelhecimento estático por deformação.

Abstract In this work was investigated the influence of the strain ageing on joints obtained by gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) of API 5L X65Q seamless pipes. Specimens were machined from the welded joints, plastically strained to 3% and aged at 250°C for 1h posteriorly, in order to characterize effects of static strain ageing. For the dynamic strain ageing characterization, the specimens were simultaneously strained and aged. Then, the aged specimens were submitted to tensile tests and representative samples were analyzed at a light optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). From the results, it was observed that the strain ageing phenomenon changed the volumetric fraction of secondary constituents in the weld metal and in the heat-affected zone, increasing the proportion of ferrite-carbide aggregates. Regarding the mechanical properties, it was noticed that the phenomenon led to higher tensile mechanical properties such as ultimate tensile strength and total elongation and lower elastic ratio, and, therefore, not impaired the mechanical properties under tensile of the welded joints. Comparing the static strain ageing with dynamic strain ageing it was observed that the effect on the plastic straining ability of welds was higher after static strain ageing.

ResumoAços que atendem à norma API 5L são aplicados na construção de dutos e há grande interesse naqueles de maior resistência, como o grau API 5L X70Q. Ainda são escassos os estudos relacionados a tubos sem costura. Durante a montagem, os tubos podem ser soldados por eletrodos revestidos (SMAW) e eventualmente sofrer aquecimento indutivo para adequação à topografia do terreno, processos que podem alterar a microestrutura das juntas. Neste trabalho foram obtidas juntas soldadas pelo processo SMAW, a partir de tubo sem costura grau API 5L X70Q. As juntas foram submetidas a tratamentos térmicos pós-soldagem nas temperaturas 920 °C e 600 °C. Foram realizados ensaios de tração, impacto Charpy e microdureza, além de caracterização metalográfica nas amostras de metal base e nas juntas como soldadas e após os tratamentos térmicos. O tratamento térmico a 920 °C promoveu a formação de estrutura ferrita/perlita, com consequente redução na resistência mecânica das juntas a valores inferiores aos especificados para o grau X70Q. Porém, o tratamento térmico a 600 °C mostrou-se benéfico devido à redução da fração volumétrica dos constituintes martensita/austenita e martensita-austenita-bainita, sem reduzir de forma significativa a resistência mecânica e com relativo ganho na tenacidade ao impacto na ZTA e na ZF.

AbstractPipelines for oil and gas conduction are manufactured of steel tubes that meet the API 5L requirements. Currently, much of the research related to the materials used in this industry is target to steels with higher tensile strength such as API 5L X70Q. But studies related to seamless pipes remains rare. During the manufacture of the pipelines, the pipes are usually welded by the SMAW process and may be heated by the inducted bending process to fit the topography of the land, processes that can change the proportion or morphology of the constituents in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and in the fused metal. The present study used an API 5L X70Q seamless steel manufactured by the Mannesmann Process to produce weld joints by the SMAW process. The joints were subjected to post weld heat treatments in the temperatures of 920 °C and 600 °C. Mechanical tests which included tensile test, Charpy impact and microhardness were applied, in addition to microstructure evaluation in the joints as welded and after heat treatments. The results showed that the first heat treatment (920 °C) promoted the formation of structure ferrite/pearlite, which reduced the mechanical properties to values under the specified for materials API grade X70Q. The second heat treatment (600 °C) was feasible in reducing the volume fraction of the Martensite-Austenite and Martensite-Austenite-Bainite constituents, without significant reduction in mechanical strength of the welded joints and with significant gain in impact toughness in the HAZ and in the weld metal.