Numerical simulation was used to predict the thermal behavior and the resulting microstructure at the heat-affected zone (HAZ) of a 170 mm diameter and 3.5 mm thickness super duplex stainless steel (SDSS) UNS S32750 tube. In order to evaluate the thermal response from the model, a usual welding situation involving interpass temperature (IT) and its influence on the HAZ microstructure was exploited. Thus, two superimposed autogenous welding passes were simulated, the first clockwise with the tube in the room temperature and the second, counterclockwise, with the tube at the temperature of 250oC. Even subjected to successive thermal cycles and high interpass temperature, the proportion and morphology of the phases at the HAZ and Fusion Zone (FZ) did not present significant differences when comparing the two welding passes. Meanwhile, nitrogen losses should be avoided during welding in order to obtain a balanced microstructure in DSS welds, contributing to guarantee satisfactory toughness in addition to resistance to pitting corrosion. The predictions from the simulation were validated by using experimental results obtained from the autogenous TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) process.

Abstract With the growing industrialization, there is a constant increase in the world demand for iron ore, thus implying an increase in the volume of mining, resulting in the extraction of ores with higher levels of silicon, phosphorus and sulfur impurities. Therefore, it is highly relevant to use beneficiation techniques that allow the use of iron ores with high levels of impurities, and it is known that a widely used alternative is to perform a pre-treatment of iron ore particles in order to reach the limit of acceptable phosphorus before application in steel production. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the pre-treatment process of iron ore particles aiming at reducing the phosphorus content using the bacterial strain burkolderia caribensis in contaminated iron ore samples. Through the rotatable central composite design technique, it was possible to evaluate the best conditions for the use of the bacterial strain to reduce the phosphorus content in the particles. The results indicated that the developed process has relevant applicability. The results contribute to a better understanding of the use of the bacterial strain as a pretreatment process to reduce the phosphorus content of iron ore particles and also to the development of new cleaner technologies.

With the growing industrialization, there is a constant increase in the world demand for steel, causing an increase on extraction of low-grade iron ores, which bear high levels of impurities. A feasible alternative is the use of residues from steel rolling processes (steelmaking mill scale) generated in the steel industry, which are composed of iron oxides consisting mainly of wustite (FeO), hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). In line with the recycling of wastes, the application of heating by microwave energy in ironmaking processes consists in a promising new method developed in recent decades and is considered a cleaner technique. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the self-reduction of mixtures composed of iron ore and steelmaking mill scale as iron source, together with coke fines as carbon source, heated using microwave energy. Through the rotational central composite design technique, it was possible to evaluate the best conditions for the use of steelmaking scale residue as well as the effect of the applied microwave energy power. The results indicated that the developed process has relevant utility with up to 41.48% of reduction obtained. The outcomes contribute to a better understanding of iron recovery from steelmaking residues in reduction processes using microwave energy for heating, providing significant insight for the development of new clean technologies.

Resumo: O aço AISI 316L e Inconel 718 são metais de ampla aplicação na indústria. O estudo da soldagem dissimilar entre esses dois materiais é tecnologicamente importante para melhorar o desempenho da junta. Concentramos este estudo na avaliação da soldabilidade dissimilar desses materiais. Três amostras de AISI 316L e Inconel 718 soldadas usando processo multipass GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) com diferentes parâmetros foram analisadas. Foram realizadas caracterização microestrutural, medidas da fração volumétrica da ferrita δ e fase Laves, espaçamento entre as dendritas de austenita, além da medição e análise das dimensões do metal de solda e da microdureza. A medição das dimensões do metal de solda e do espaçamento entre as dendritas mostrou que maiores aportes térmicos aumentaram as zonas fundidas e o espaçamento entre as dendritas de austenita. A fração volumétrica de ferrita δ diminuiu com o aumento do aporte térmico, enquanto que a fração da fase Laves aumentou. A microdureza apresentou variação significativa na poça de fusão devido a mudanças nas fases e na composição, conforme evidenciado pela análise de EDS nas juntas dissimilares.

Abstract: AISI 316L steel and Inconel 718 are metals of wide application in industries. The study of dissimilar welding between these two materials is technologically important to improve their joint performance. We focused this study on the evaluation of the dissimilar weldability of these materials. Three samples of AISI 316L and Inconel 718 welded using a multipass GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding) process with different parameters were analyzed. The microstructural characterization, measurements of the volumetric fraction of the δ ferrite and Laves phase, the spacing between austenite dendrites, in addition to measurement and analysis of dimensions of the welding zones and the microhardness were performed. The measurement of the weld metal dimensions and the dendrite spacing showed that higher heat inputs increased the dilution zones and the spacing between austenite dendrites. The volumetric fraction of the δ ferrite decreased with the increase of heat input, while the Laves phase fraction increased. The microhardness presented significant variation in the weld pool due to changes in the phases and composition, as evidenced by EDS analysis in the dissimilar joints.

Abstract The Direct Reduction (DR) process has been growing worldwide, and there are strong context suggestions that it will grow even more. One of these factors is the environmental pressure that occurs worldwide, and there are already projects to migrate Blast Furnace route steel plants to the Direct Reduction (DR) route, due to its smaller carbon footprint. Considering the importance of this process and the challenges of carrying out experimental tests on a pilot scale, an adequate way to evaluate the process and its impacts is through numerical simulations. There are different techniques applied to models that describe the counter-current reactor in the DR process, but none of them account for the clustering phenomenon. Clustering occurs because of the sintering of the metallic iron on the surface of the pellets in such a way that they attach to each other, forming clusters that hinder the gas flow through the shaft. The present study attempted to adapt a numerical model of a DR process to account for the effect of the cluster formation. Some clustering index equations from literature and some developed as part of this study were used and tested in the model, as a function of temperature, by varying the solid volume fraction in the control unit. The equation that resulted in the adjusted output closest to the current empirical value was implemented in the model and proved to be successful.

The planning and execution of the adequate welding procedure for the superduplex stainless steel (SAF 2507 SDSS) in multiple passes is a complex technological task since thermal cycling may cause the precipitation of harmful phases, such as the sigma (σ) and chi (χ) phases. For this reason, technical standards limit the maximum interpass temperature (T.I.) in an extremely conservative manner at 100 °C. In order to investigate a possibly wider temperature range for this procedure, SAF 2507-SDSS tubes were subjected to autogenous Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding with interpass temperatures ranging from 150°C to 400°C. The different welding zones were characterized by microscopy, Vickers microhardness, and polarization corrosion tests. The results indicated that in the Fusion Zone (FZ), columnar grains of ferrite were formed surrounded by allotriomorphic austenite (AA), besides intragranular austenite (AI) and Widmanstätten austenite (AW). The heat-affected zone (HAZ) had a lower ferrite content and was composed of equiaxed grains of ferrite, also surrounded by AA, besides AI and AW. Hardnesses varied between HV272 and HV293, regardless of the region or the interpass temperature used. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance has not been significantly affected by the interpass temperatures between 150 °C and 400°C.

Resumo: Um desafio bem conhecido é prever as transformações que ocorrem durante a soldagem das ligas metálicas com o objetivo de controlar as propriedades da solda. Desta forma, este estudo apresenta um modelo Termo-Mecânico-Metalúrgico para predizer numericamente a história térmica, as transformações de fase no estado sólido, a microestrutura de solidificação e a distribuição de dureza durante e após a soldagem de aços de alta resistência e baixa liga. O modelo foi implementado numericamente em um código computacional próprio baseado no Método dos Volumes Finitos, o que permitiu rastrear e calcular dinamicamente as frações volumétricas de ferrita, perlita, bainita e martensita na zona afetada pelo calor, além da formação e determinação do espaçamento do braço dendrítico na zona de fusão, enquanto que a distribuição da dureza na zona afetada pelo calor foi calculada aplicando-se a regra da mistura de fases. Para tanto, soldas autógenas usando o processo Gas Tungsten Arc Welding de passe único foram simuladas numericamente e experimentalmente realizadas em amostras do aço de alta resistência e baixa liga AISI 4130, incluindo seu pré-aquecimento com o objetivo de avaliar a eficácia do modelo proposto para simular a soldagem de peças em diferentes condições térmicas iniciais, tendo sido obtida uma estreita concordância entre os resultados calculados e experimentais.

Abstract: A well-known challenge is to predict the transformations occurring during the metal alloys welding aiming to control the weldment properties. Thus, this study presents a Thermo-Mechanical-Metallurgical model to numerically predict the thermal history, the solid-state phase transformations, the solidification microstructure and the hardness distribution during and after the welding of high strength low-alloy steels. The model was numerically implemented in an in-house computational code based on the Finite Volume Method, which allowed to dynamically track and calculate the volume fractions of ferrite, pearlite, bainite and martensite at the heat-affected zone, besides the formation and determination of dendrite arm spacing at the fusion zone, whereas the hardness distribution at the heat-affected zone was calculated by applying the phase mixture rule. For this, single-pass autogenous Gas Tungsten Arc Welding welds were numerically simulated and experimentally carried out on high strength low-alloy AISI 4130 steel samples, including their preheating to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed model to simulate the workpieces welding in different initial thermal conditions and a close agreement between the calculated and experimental results were obtained.

Abstract In recent decades, microwave energy has been successfully experimented for mining and metallurgy processes and is considered a promising new method for ironmaking. In this context, in the present work, self-reducing mixtures composed of fines of iron ore and coke were prepared, intending to evaluate the degree of reduction of iron ore using microwave energy, applying different contents of coke, levels of power, and reaction times. For this, the degree of reduction was assessed as a function of these variables. Additionally, the reduction kinetics was investigated using chemical and diffusional models, and the microstructure of the samples was evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The highest degree of reduction obtained after the experiments was greater than 60% and a statistical investigation showed that the reaction time is the factor with the greatest influence on these results, followed by microwave power and coke content. The investigation of the reaction kinetics showed that the process is chemically controlled, depending on the gasification steps governed by the Boudouard reaction. The images obtained by SEM led to the conclusion that the temperature inside the sample reached 1200°C. Pig iron was found both in the form of whiskers and in the form of metallic droplets.

Resumo: Aços AISI 316 e AISI 316L possuem ampla aplicação industrial, por isso a importância de avaliar a soldabilidade dessas ligas. Neste estudo, foi feita análise comparativa entre as amostras de ambos os aços soldados com aportes de 0,5, 1,5 e 2,5 kJ/mm utilizando processo TIG autógeno. Foi analisada a variação do aporte térmico sobre a morfologia do cordão de solda, o espaçamento entre ferritas δ, a fração volumétrica de ferrita δ e a microdureza na zona fundida. Os resultados mostraram que as dimensões do metal de solda, o espaçamento entre as ferritas e a fração volumétrica de ferrita δ tornam-se maiores com o aumento do aporte. As amostras soldadas do aço AISI 316L apresentaram maior espaçamento entre ferritas δ e maiores frações de ferrita δ que o aço AISI 316. Quanto à microdureza, o estudo mostrou que quanto mais próximo do centro da zona fundida, maior é o valor de microdureza, sendo a microdureza do aço AISI 316 maior que a do aço AISI 316L. Através de modelagem computacional foi possível avaliar a distribuição de temperatura ao longo das chapas soldadas e comparar o ciclo térmico obtido por simulação com o ciclo calculado experimentalmente para o aporte de 0,5 kJ/mm.

Abstract AISI 316 and AISI 316L steels have wide industrial application, so the importance of evaluating the weldability of these alloys. In this study, comparative analysis was made between the samples of both welded steels with heat inputs of 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5 kJ/mm using autogenous TIG process. The variation of heat input on weld bead morphology, the spacing between δ ferrite bands, the volumetric fraction of ferrite δ and the microhardness in the molted zone were analyzed. The results showed that the dimensions of the welding metal, the spacing between ferrite bands and the volumetric fraction of ferrite δ become larger with the increase of the heat input. The welded samples of AISI 316L steel presented larger ferrite band spacing and larger δ ferrite fractions than AISI 316 steel. As for microhardness, the study showed that the closer to the center of the molted zone, the greater the microhardness value and the hardness of AISI 316 steel higher than that of AISI 316L steel. Through computational modeling it was possible to evaluate the temperature distribution along the welded plates and compare the thermal cycle obtained by simulation with the experimentally calculated cycle for the input of 0.5 kJ/mm.

The shaft furnace knowed Midrex™ is used for the production of direct reduced iron with the use of reformed gas. Another process based on shaft reactors is the Tecnored process, which exhibits the great advantage of using self-reducing agglomerates. Therefore, it was proposed a combination of the shaft furnace for direct reduction with self-reducing pellet burden. In addition, with the aim of improving the furnace efficiency and reducing the need for reformed gas, the injection of natural gas and oxygen into the bustle region is proposed. Thus, it is possible exploit the advantages of direct reduction involving high amounts of hydrogen and faster reactions of the self-reducing process to decrease the CO2 emission, compared to that of blast furnace. The energy profile, productivity, and carbon emission of the traditional shaft furnace were compared with the simulated results after partial replacement of the burden with self-reducing pellets containing fines of elephant grass charcoal. The simulation results for a combination of 15% of self-reducing pellets in the burden with 2.5% oxygen and natural gas injection were the best among the scenarios simulated, with the productivity being 2.7 ton/m3 day and the decrease in the amount of reformed gas being 10%.

Resumo A soldagem dissimilar (Dissimilar Metal Welds – DMWs), união de dois diferentes materiais metálicos, tem muitas aplicações industriais, com destaque para trocadores de calor nas usinas nucleares. Portanto, devem resistir à corrosão e a esforços mecânicos, entre outros requisitos. Neste trabalho foi abordada a susceptibilidade à corrosão da junta de união (feita por soldagem TIG – Tungsten Inert Gas), de forma autógena, de dois materiais distintos: Inconel 718 e o aço AISI 316L. Foram realizadas soldagens sob diferentes condições de aportes térmicos e correspondentes quantificações de fases utilizando microscopias e ferritoscopia e correlacionadas com o comportamento eletroquímico desta união em meios contendo cloretos. As análises microscópicas e ferromagnéticas mostraram que não houve formação da fase sigma durante a soldagem e a existência de altos teores de ferrita na região da zona fundida próxima a ZAC (zona afetada pelo calor) do aço 316L. Os ensaios eletroquímicos de corrosão mostram que as amostras nas diferentes regiões apresentaram a seguinte ordem decrescente de resistência à corrosão localizada: Amostra com maior aporte térmico (0,50 J/mm), na interface ZF/Inconel > Amostra com menor aporte térmico (0,33 J/mm) na interface ZF/Inconel > Amostra com menor aporte térmico, na interface ZF/316L > Amostra com maior aporte térmico, na interface ZF/316L> aço 316L. Finalmente, os diferentes aportes térmicos não provocaram diminuição da resistência à corrosão comparados ao aço 316L nas diferentes regiões de solda.

Abstract Dissimilar Metal Welds (DMWs) union of two different metallic materials has many industrial applications, with emphasis for heat exchangers in nuclear power plants. Therefore, they must have enhanced corrosion and mechanical stress resistances, among other properties. The focus of this work is the analysis of the susceptibility to corrosion of the joint (made by TIG welding – Tungsten Inert Gas) of two different materials: Inconel 718 and AISI 316L stainless steel, without filler metal. Micrographic and ferroscopy analyses were performed for different heat input conditions and correlated with the electrochemical behavior of this joint in an environment containing chlorides. The metallographic and ferroscopy analyses did not reveal sigma phase formation during welding and showed high ferrite content in the region of the fusion zone near the HAZ (heat affected zone) of the 316L. The electrochemical corrosion tests showed that the samples in the different regions presented the following decreasing order of localized corrosion resistance: Sample with higher heat input (0.50 J / mm), at the interface ZF / Inconel > Sample with lower heat input (0.33 J / mm) at the interface ZF / Inconel > Sample with lower heat input, at interface ZF / 316L > Sample with higher heat input at interface ZF / 316L > 316L . Finally, the different heat inputs did not cause a significant decrease in the corrosion resistance in the different regions of the weld in relation to 316L.

Resumo A união entre materiais dissimilares tem sido amplamente aplicada na indústria de petróleo e gás. Em geral, este tipo de soldagem é mais sensível às diferenças de composição química existente entre os metais envolvidos. Diante dessa perspectiva, este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar, por união autógena, a microestrutura de uma junta soldada entre um aço de alta resistência e baixa liga da classe API 5L X80 e um aço inoxidável duplex UNS S32304. Além disso, estudou-se o comportamento quanto à resistência à corrosão em uma solução simuladora de água do mar. A microestrutura e composição da junta soldada foram avaliadas por microscopia ótica e eletrônica, espectrometria de energia dispersiva (EDS). A resistência à corrosão foi estudada por polarização potenciodinâmica anódica e por ensaios de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica. As juntas soldadas apresentaram uma microestrutura que se difere em morfologia de ambos os metais de base, além disso, notou-se a migração de cromo e níquel do duplex para esta região que apresentou uma resistência à corrosão ligeiramente superior ao API. Desta forma, podemos concluir que as propriedades da junta dissimilar são compatíveis com as aplicações, sendo possível sua utilização usufruindo-se das vantagens da soldagem dissimilar.

Abstract The union between two dissimilar materials has been widely applied in the oil and gas industry. In general, this type of welding is more sensitive to differences in chemical composition between the metals involved. From this perspective, this work aims, by autogenous welding, to evaluate the microstructure of a joint welded between a high strength and low alloy steel of class API 5L X80 and a duplex stainless steel UNS UNS S32304. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance of the dissimilar welding region was evaluated in a solution which simulates the seawater environment. The microstructural properties and composition of the welding region were studied using optical microscopy, scanning electronic microscopy (SEM) with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The corrosion resistance was studied by anodic potentiodynamic polarization and by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The dissimilar region differs from both materials in their microstructural characteristics and presented significant migration of chromium and nickel from duplex materials to the dissimilar region, which enhanced their corrosion resistance compared with the API. Therefore, we concluded that the dissimilar regions are compatible with the applications which allow taking the advantage of join these two materials.

Resumo A soldagem de estruturas de combustíveis nucleares de Zircalloy possui uma faixa de parâmetros pequena para soldas de qualidade adequadas, pois o Zircalloy tem a temperatura de fusão maior do que a da liga de cobre usualmente utilizada para os eletrodos. No intuito de aumentar a faixa de parâmetros que produzem soldas de qualidade, foi testado um revestimento de cromo nas superfícies do eletrodo e demais dispositivos de soldagem, pois o cromo apresenta uma temperatura de fusão maior do que o Zircalloy e também daquela apresentada pelo cobre. Foram soldadas amostras com dispositivos de soldagem comumente utilizados, que são sem nenhum revestimento e dispositivos de soldagem revestidos de cromo para uma comparação da ampliação da faixa de parâmetros, garantindo a qualidade adequada para a solda. Foram utilizados ensaios metalográficos para avaliar a medida do tamanho da lentilha, e ensaios de corrosão para verificar a integridade da solda, que são critérios usuais de aceitação da solda. Além disso, foi utilizada simulação computacional para análise da região soldada e possibilitar a disponibilização de uma ferramenta de análise adicional para previsão da zona afetada pelo calor que confere qualidade adequada para a zona afetada pelo calor. A simulação computacional foi capaz de prever o tamanho da lentilha de solda utilizando os parâmetros de controle. Ambas as abordagens indicaram que se obtém ampliação da faixa de parâmetros de soldagem aceitáveis e consequentemente o aumento do tamanho da lentilha de solda, tornando a nova metodologia mais confiável e adequada para a soldagem com a segurança necessária para se decidir sobre sua aprovação.

Abstract To weld zircalloy nuclear fuel assembly structures, there is a small parameter range for acceptable welds, since zircalloy has a higher melting temperature than the copper alloy of the electrodes. In order to increase the parameter range, a chromium coating was inserted and on the surfaces of the electrode and on other welding devices, once the melting temperature of the chromium is higher than that of zircalloy, as well as of copper. In order to compare and test the new methodology, samples have been welded with the conventional devices which do not have any coating or welding devices covered by chromium and the new coating devices. A comparison on the improvements and enlargement of the range of the control parameter were measured and predicted to assure that the welded region presents adequate quality. Metallographic tests were used to evaluate welding lens size together with corrosion tests to verify the integrity of the welding regions. The lens dimensions and areas are usual criteria for weld acceptance assuring the quality. In addition, computational simulation was used to analyze the welded region, allowing the use of an additional analysis tool to predict the effect of process parameters on the heat affect zone. The simulation was able to predict the size of the welding lens as a function of process control parameters. Both approaches indicated that an increase in the range of acceptable welding parameters and a consequent increase in the lens size of the weld were obtained for the new chromium coating electrodes. The results of experimental data and model predictions confirmed that the new methodology is more reliable and suitable for safety welding procedure approval.

Resumo A aplicação de juntas soldadas dissimilares, de Inconel 718 endurecível por precipitação e aço inoxidável austenítico AISI316L, ocorre principalmente em indústrias aeroespaciais e plantas de usinas nucleares. Isso ocorre devido à elevada resistência mecânica aliada a boa resistência à corrosão em ambos ambientes e condições de temperaturas. Este trabalho objetivou avaliar o efeito da intensidade da corrente de soldagem e da temperatura de interpasse em juntas dissimilares utilizando o processo de soldagem a arco com eletrodo de tungstênio e proteção gasosa (TIG) autógeno. Este processo de soldagem foi escolhido em função de seus excelentes resultados aliados à facilidade operacional e baixo custo. Foi utilizada a ferramenta de planejamento experimental para maximizar o potencial dos resultados experimentais. Para caracterização metalúrgica foram utilizados análise da macrografia da junta soldada, de perfis de microdureza, e de microscopia ótica (MO). A variação da corrente de soldagem e da temperatura de interpasse ocasionou alteração da geometria da zona fundida (ZF) de até 232% de aumento da área da ZF. A microdureza sofreu uma variação de até 25% de aumento na região da ZF. Quanto a fração volumétrica de ferrita, foi observado um acréscimo de até 139% na região da ZF. Este trabalho objetiva também estabelecer referências de parâmetros de soldagem que possam proporcionar garantias de estabilidade para a união metalúrgica entre metais de dissimilares.

Abstract The application of dissimilar welded joints, from Inconel 718 precipitation curable and AISI316L austenitic stainless steel, occurs mainly in the aerospace and nuclear power plant industries. This is due to the high mechanical resistance coupled with good corrosion resistance in both environments and temperature conditions. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of welding current and interbody temperature on dissimilar joints using the tungsten electrode and gaseous protection (GTAW) autogenous arc welding process. This welding process was chosen due to its excellent results coupled with ease of operation and low cost. The experimental planning tool was used to maximize the potential of the experimental results. For metallurgical characterization, the weld joint macro-analysis, microhardness profile, and optical microscopy (OM) analysis were used. The variation of the welding current and the interpolation temperature caused a change in the geometry of the molten zone (MZ) of up to 232% increase in the ZF area. The microhardness varied up to a 25% increase in the MZ region. As for the volumetric fraction of ferrite, an increase of up to 139% in the MZ region was observed. This work also aims to establish references of welding parameters that can provide guarantees of stability for the metallurgical union between dissimilar metals.

Abstract A numerical model based on transport equations for momentum, energy and chemical species for the gas and solid phases is proposed to simulate the inner phenomena in the direct reduction of the shaft furnace process for producing directly reduced iron (DRI). The model is verified using industrial data for productivity, raw materials and final composition of the DRI product. The model is used to evaluate operational practices using new raw materials and the composition of the reducing gas in the process. Three cases were considered, which correspond to available raw materials commercialized by different suppliers. The effects on the gas and solid inner temperatures, pressure and phase composition distributions are quantified. The simulation results indicated that good agreement for overall parameters of the process could be achieved and afterwards, detailed features of the inner conditions of the process are predicted.